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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O câncer de esôfago é uma malignidade altamente freqüente e letal. Uma característica específica das áreas de alta incidência de câncer de esôfago é a grande proporção de duplas mutações no gene TP53, sendo, ao menos uma delas, uma transição G para A em sítios CpG. Essas transições resultam de malpareamentos GT causados pela desaminação espontânea da 5-metilcitosina em ilhotas CpG. A enzima de reparo de DNA Timina-DNA Glicosilase (TDG) é responsável pelo primeiro passo na remoção da timina de malpareamentos GT em CpG. A alta proporção de mutações em sítios CpG em câncer de esôfago das áreas de alta incidência sugere que a via de reparo de DNA iniciada pela TDG pode estar prejudicada. A presença de duplas mutações, sendo ao menos uma delas em CpG, levantou a hipótese de que a primeira mutação no TP53 reduz a atividade da via de reparo iniciada pela TDG, que acarretaria a segunda mutação em sítios CpG. Dessa forma, o objetivo desse trabalho foi analisar o efeito da p53 sobre a expressão e atividade da TDG. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a expressão de TDG é regulada transcricionalmente pela p53 numa gama de linhagens celulares e é induzida pelo dano ao DNA, de forma p53-dependente. Além disto, os resultados apontam um possível papel da proteína p53 ativa na migração nuclear e atividade da TDG. Estes resultados ainda nos levam à conclusão de que o silenciamento de TDG aumenta a sensibilidade à morte celular induzida por MMS quando a p53 é encontrada na forma selvagem, mas não quando esta proteína é mutada, e de que o status mutacional de TP53 parece afetar a expressão de TDG em CEE primários. Juntos esses resultados sugerem que a p53 regula o reparo de DNA mediado pela TDG e que a inativação de p53 em células tumorais pode contribuir para a aquisição de um mutator phenotype. / Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a highly frequent and fatal malignancy in the world. A peculiar characteristic of the high incidence areas of esophageal cancer is the large proportion of double mutations in TP53 gene, being, at least one of them, a G to A transition at CpG sites. These transitions result from GT mismatches caused by the spontaneous deamination of 5-methylcytosine at CpG sites. The DNA repair enzyme Thymine-DNA Glycosylase (TDG) is responsible for the first step in the removal of the thymidine from the GT mismatches at CpG sites. The high proportion of mutations at CpG sites in esophageal tumors in the high incidence areas suggests that the DNA repair pathway initiated by TDG might be impaired. The large number of double mutations, with one being at a CpG site, raised the possibility that the first mutation in TP53 reduces the activity of the TDG base excision repair pathway, increasing the chance of a second mutation event at a CpG site. In this way, the aim of this work was to analyze the effect of p53 on the expression and activity of TDG. The results achieved show that TDG expression is regulated by p53 in a variety of cells lines at the trancriptional level and induced by DNAdamage in a p53-dependent manner. Furthermore, these results point out a possible role of active p53 in the nuclear migration and activity of TDG. The results further support the notion that TDG silencing increases the sensitivity to cell death induced by Methylmethane sulphonate when p53 is found in a wild-type, but not in a mutant form, and that TP53 mutation seems to affect TDG expression in primary ESCC. Together, these results suggest that p53 regulates TDG-mediated repair and that p53 inactivation in cancer cells may contribute to a mutator phenotype through loss of TDG function.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O câncer de esôfago é uma malignidade altamente freqüente e letal. Uma característica específica das áreas de alta incidência de câncer de esôfago é a grande proporção de duplas mutações no gene TP53, sendo, ao menos uma delas, uma transição G para A em sítios CpG. Essas transições resultam de malpareamentos GT causados pela desaminação espontânea da 5-metilcitosina em ilhotas CpG. A enzima de reparo de DNA Timina-DNA Glicosilase (TDG) é responsável pelo primeiro passo na remoção da timina de malpareamentos GT em CpG. A alta proporção de mutações em sítios CpG em câncer de esôfago das áreas de alta incidência sugere que a via de reparo de DNA iniciada pela TDG pode estar prejudicada. A presença de duplas mutações, sendo ao menos uma delas em CpG, levantou a hipótese de que a primeira mutação no TP53 reduz a atividade da via de reparo iniciada pela TDG, que acarretaria a segunda mutação em sítios CpG. Dessa forma, o objetivo desse trabalho foi analisar o efeito da p53 sobre a expressão e atividade da TDG. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a expressão de TDG é regulada transcricionalmente pela p53 numa gama de linhagens celulares e é induzida pelo dano ao DNA, de forma p53-dependente. Além disto, os resultados apontam um possível papel da proteína p53 ativa na migração nuclear e atividade da TDG. Estes resultados ainda nos levam à conclusão de que o silenciamento de TDG aumenta a sensibilidade à morte celular induzida por MMS quando a p53 é encontrada na forma selvagem, mas não quando esta proteína é mutada, e de que o status mutacional de TP53 parece afetar a expressão de TDG em CEE primários. Juntos esses resultados sugerem que a p53 regula o reparo de DNA mediado pela TDG e que a inativação de p53 em células tumorais pode contribuir para a aquisição de um mutator phenotype. / Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a highly frequent and fatal malignancy in the world. A peculiar characteristic of the high incidence areas of esophageal cancer is the large proportion of double mutations in TP53 gene, being, at least one of them, a G to A transition at CpG sites. These transitions result from GT mismatches caused by the spontaneous deamination of 5-methylcytosine at CpG sites. The DNA repair enzyme Thymine-DNA Glycosylase (TDG) is responsible for the first step in the removal of the thymidine from the GT mismatches at CpG sites. The high proportion of mutations at CpG sites in esophageal tumors in the high incidence areas suggests that the DNA repair pathway initiated by TDG might be impaired. The large number of double mutations, with one being at a CpG site, raised the possibility that the first mutation in TP53 reduces the activity of the TDG base excision repair pathway, increasing the chance of a second mutation event at a CpG site. In this way, the aim of this work was to analyze the effect of p53 on the expression and activity of TDG. The results achieved show that TDG expression is regulated by p53 in a variety of cells lines at the trancriptional level and induced by DNAdamage in a p53-dependent manner. Furthermore, these results point out a possible role of active p53 in the nuclear migration and activity of TDG. The results further support the notion that TDG silencing increases the sensitivity to cell death induced by Methylmethane sulphonate when p53 is found in a wild-type, but not in a mutant form, and that TP53 mutation seems to affect TDG expression in primary ESCC. Together, these results suggest that p53 regulates TDG-mediated repair and that p53 inactivation in cancer cells may contribute to a mutator phenotype through loss of TDG function.

<p>These studies are based on the isolation of ë replication defective mutants that had acquired multiple point mutations within ë replication initiation genes O and P in a cryptic prophage (Hayes et al., 1998). Each mutant cell arose after shifting wild type cells with a cI[Ts] cryptic ë prophage deleted for int-kil, and from ren into E. coli, from 30oC to 42oC. Derepression of the trapped cryptic prophage kills the host cells (designated as RK+). Rare colony forming units survive and were designated as RK- mutants. This led to a hypothesis that ë replication-triggered cell stress provokes mutator activity, i.e., increases the frequency of replication errors within the simultaneously replicating chromosome of the host E. coli cells. We tested this hypothesis by asking three questions: (1) Do unselected, untargeted (with no link to ë fragment) auxotrophic mutations appear within the RK- mutant population selected from RK+ culture cells? (2) Is replication initiation from the cryptic ë fragment, or, alternatively, just expression of one or more ë genes required for the appearance of the unselected auxotrophic mutations? (3) Do E. coli functions participate in the appearance of unselected auxotrophic mutations within the RK- mutant population? Our results indicate that auxotrophic mutations unlinked to the ë fragment appeared at high frequency within RK- mutants. RK- auxotrophs arising on rich medium were identified by screening the survivor clones for growth on minimal medium. The appearance of RK- auxotrophic colonies at high frequency (>1 per 100 RK- mutants) leads us to conclude that auxotrophic mutations arise during the independent selection for RK- mutants. Conditions that inhibited ë fragment induction fully suppressed the mutator phenotype. Mutation of host dnaB such that the helicase does not support replication initiation from the induced ë fragment completely suppressed host cell killing, but not the appearance of auxotrophic mutations. We asked if E. coli error-prone polymerases IV and V, or gene functions regulated as part of the host SOS response contributed to the provoked mutator phenotype and observed no close correlation. We demonstrated that the RK+ starting cells did not have a distinct intrinsic mutator activity in several ways, including moving the cryptic ë fragment to different E. coli host cells, blocking ë fragment induction by the addition of a cI+ plasmid to eliminate ë gene expression at high temperatures, and independent assays for spontaneous rifampicin resistance. We found that the induced mutator phenotype associated with the appearance of untargeted auxotrophs was linked to the expression of lambda gene P, and did not require replication initiation from the cryptic ë prophage. We also found that the mutator phenotype of the induced cryptic ë fragment increased the frequency of rifampicin resistant colonies among the RK- mutant population. </p>

<p>These studies are based on the isolation of ë replication defective mutants that had acquired multiple point mutations within ë replication initiation genes O and P in a cryptic prophage (Hayes et al., 1998). Each mutant cell arose after shifting wild type cells with a cI[Ts] cryptic ë prophage deleted for int-kil, and from ren into E. coli, from 30oC to 42oC. Derepression of the trapped cryptic prophage kills the host cells (designated as RK+). Rare colony forming units survive and were designated as RK- mutants. This led to a hypothesis that ë replication-triggered cell stress provokes mutator activity, i.e., increases the frequency of replication errors within the simultaneously replicating chromosome of the host E. coli cells. We tested this hypothesis by asking three questions: (1) Do unselected, untargeted (with no link to ë fragment) auxotrophic mutations appear within the RK- mutant population selected from RK+ culture cells? (2) Is replication initiation from the cryptic ë fragment, or, alternatively, just expression of one or more ë genes required for the appearance of the unselected auxotrophic mutations? (3) Do E. coli functions participate in the appearance of unselected auxotrophic mutations within the RK- mutant population? Our results indicate that auxotrophic mutations unlinked to the ë fragment appeared at high frequency within RK- mutants. RK- auxotrophs arising on rich medium were identified by screening the survivor clones for growth on minimal medium. The appearance of RK- auxotrophic colonies at high frequency (>1 per 100 RK- mutants) leads us to conclude that auxotrophic mutations arise during the independent selection for RK- mutants. Conditions that inhibited ë fragment induction fully suppressed the mutator phenotype. Mutation of host dnaB such that the helicase does not support replication initiation from the induced ë fragment completely suppressed host cell killing, but not the appearance of auxotrophic mutations. We asked if E. coli error-prone polymerases IV and V, or gene functions regulated as part of the host SOS response contributed to the provoked mutator phenotype and observed no close correlation. We demonstrated that the RK+ starting cells did not have a distinct intrinsic mutator activity in several ways, including moving the cryptic ë fragment to different E. coli host cells, blocking ë fragment induction by the addition of a cI+ plasmid to eliminate ë gene expression at high temperatures, and independent assays for spontaneous rifampicin resistance. We found that the induced mutator phenotype associated with the appearance of untargeted auxotrophs was linked to the expression of lambda gene P, and did not require replication initiation from the cryptic ë prophage. We also found that the mutator phenotype of the induced cryptic ë fragment increased the frequency of rifampicin resistant colonies among the RK- mutant population. </p>

Os elementos transponíveis constituem grande parte do genoma das plantas, particularmente em gramíneas, constituem entre 50 a 80% do conteúdo genômico. Recentemente, foi demonstrado que estes elementos servem como fonte de material genético para a formação de novos genes e novas redes regulatórias. O SUCEST, projeto de seqüenciamento de ESTs de cana-de-açúcar da FAPESP, gerou a seqüência parcial de 237.954 mRNA de diversos tecidos e condições fisiológicas, fornecendo valiosa informação sobre o transcriptoma deste cultivo. Um levantamento dos elementos transponíveis nesse genoma mostrou que o transposon Mutator é o mais expresso. A superfamília Mutator foi amplamente estudada em cana-de-açúcar, arroz e Arabidopsis thaliana e se constatou que o sistema está composto por dois clados de transposons verdadeiros (Classe I e Classe II) e dois clados de transposases domesticadas (Classe III e Classe IV), chamadas mustang. As transposases domesticadas são seqüências derivadas de transposons, que perderam a capacidade de se mobilizar, e adquiriram função celular. Recentemente, foram clonadas e seqüenciadas, pelo nosso grupo, duas cópias genômicas da Classe III e uma da Classe IV. Para somar evidências que permitam desvendar a função das proteínas MUSTANG, este trabalho realizou uma análise comparativa destes genes em gramíneas assim como o estudo da atividade transcricional em cana-de-açúcar. Desta forma, foram identificados os loci ortólogos no genoma de sorgo e milho, e foi possível verificar que os genes mustang são altamente conservados. As putativas regiões regulatórias dos genes de cana-de-açúcar apresentaram diversos motivos de união a fatores de transcrição envolvidos na resposta a luz, hormônios e estresse. Fusões com genes repórteres permitiram demonstrar que as regiões estudadas são promotores transcricionais ativos. Adicionalmente, a obtenção de linhagens de células de fumo transgênicas viabilizou experimentos que permitiram revelar que os promotores dos genes mustang são modulados por fitohormônios. O perfil transcricional para ambas as classes revelou que estes genes são expressos de forma ubíqua, sendo o meristema o tecido que apresenta maiores níveis relativos de mRNA. A análise integrada dos resultados obtidos sugere o possível envolvimento das proteínas MUSTANG na manutenção da homeostase da resposta hormonal. / Transposable elements constitute a vast quantity of plant genomes, particularly in grasses, they comprise between 50 to 80% of genomic content. Recently, it has been demonstrated that these elements are source of genetic material for new genes creation and new regulatory network establishment. The Brazilian Sugarcane EST Sequencing Project, SUCEST, financed by FAPESP, generated 237.954 mRNA partial sequence derived from several tissues and different physiological conditions, providing a wide range of information of sugarcane transcriptome. A wide spectrum of transposable elements was identified, revealing the Mutator transposon as the most abundantly expressed transposable element in sugarcane genome. The Mutator superfamily was deeply explored in Arabidopsis, sugarcane and rice and it was found that the system comprises two clades of bona fide transposons (Class I and Class II), and two clades of domesticated transposases (Class III and Class IV), named mustang. The domesticated transposases are sequences that have lost their movement capacity and, acquired cellular function. Recently, two genomic copies of Class III and one for Class IV have been cloned and sequenced by our group. In order to gain evidences for unraveling the function of MUSTANG proteins, this work performs a comparative sequence analysis of these genes in grass genomes and a transcriptional activity profile study in sugarcane. Thus, the orthologous loci from sorghum and maize were identified, and it was verified that mustang genes are highly conserved in grass genomes. The putative promoter region of sugarcane genes displayed several transcription factor motifs involved in light, hormone and stress response. Reporter gene fusions showed that the studied regions are indeed transcriptional active promoters. Furthermore, transgenic lines of tobacco BY-2 cells demonstrated that the sugarcane mustang genes are modulated by phytohormones. The expression profile revealed that both classes are ubiquitously transcribed being the meristem the tissue that shows higher relative expression levels. The integrated analysis of these results suggests a possible involvement of MUSTANG proteins in the homeostasis maintenance of hormonal response.

Os elementos transponíveis constituem grande parte do genoma das plantas, particularmente em gramíneas, constituem entre 50 a 80% do conteúdo genômico. Recentemente, foi demonstrado que estes elementos servem como fonte de material genético para a formação de novos genes e novas redes regulatórias. O SUCEST, projeto de seqüenciamento de ESTs de cana-de-açúcar da FAPESP, gerou a seqüência parcial de 237.954 mRNA de diversos tecidos e condições fisiológicas, fornecendo valiosa informação sobre o transcriptoma deste cultivo. Um levantamento dos elementos transponíveis nesse genoma mostrou que o transposon Mutator é o mais expresso. A superfamília Mutator foi amplamente estudada em cana-de-açúcar, arroz e Arabidopsis thaliana e se constatou que o sistema está composto por dois clados de transposons verdadeiros (Classe I e Classe II) e dois clados de transposases domesticadas (Classe III e Classe IV), chamadas mustang. As transposases domesticadas são seqüências derivadas de transposons, que perderam a capacidade de se mobilizar, e adquiriram função celular. Recentemente, foram clonadas e seqüenciadas, pelo nosso grupo, duas cópias genômicas da Classe III e uma da Classe IV. Para somar evidências que permitam desvendar a função das proteínas MUSTANG, este trabalho realizou uma análise comparativa destes genes em gramíneas assim como o estudo da atividade transcricional em cana-de-açúcar. Desta forma, foram identificados os loci ortólogos no genoma de sorgo e milho, e foi possível verificar que os genes mustang são altamente conservados. As putativas regiões regulatórias dos genes de cana-de-açúcar apresentaram diversos motivos de união a fatores de transcrição envolvidos na resposta a luz, hormônios e estresse. Fusões com genes repórteres permitiram demonstrar que as regiões estudadas são promotores transcricionais ativos. Adicionalmente, a obtenção de linhagens de células de fumo transgênicas viabilizou experimentos que permitiram revelar que os promotores dos genes mustang são modulados por fitohormônios. O perfil transcricional para ambas as classes revelou que estes genes são expressos de forma ubíqua, sendo o meristema o tecido que apresenta maiores níveis relativos de mRNA. A análise integrada dos resultados obtidos sugere o possível envolvimento das proteínas MUSTANG na manutenção da homeostase da resposta hormonal. / Transposable elements constitute a vast quantity of plant genomes, particularly in grasses, they comprise between 50 to 80% of genomic content. Recently, it has been demonstrated that these elements are source of genetic material for new genes creation and new regulatory network establishment. The Brazilian Sugarcane EST Sequencing Project, SUCEST, financed by FAPESP, generated 237.954 mRNA partial sequence derived from several tissues and different physiological conditions, providing a wide range of information of sugarcane transcriptome. A wide spectrum of transposable elements was identified, revealing the Mutator transposon as the most abundantly expressed transposable element in sugarcane genome. The Mutator superfamily was deeply explored in Arabidopsis, sugarcane and rice and it was found that the system comprises two clades of bona fide transposons (Class I and Class II), and two clades of domesticated transposases (Class III and Class IV), named mustang. The domesticated transposases are sequences that have lost their movement capacity and, acquired cellular function. Recently, two genomic copies of Class III and one for Class IV have been cloned and sequenced by our group. In order to gain evidences for unraveling the function of MUSTANG proteins, this work performs a comparative sequence analysis of these genes in grass genomes and a transcriptional activity profile study in sugarcane. Thus, the orthologous loci from sorghum and maize were identified, and it was verified that mustang genes are highly conserved in grass genomes. The putative promoter region of sugarcane genes displayed several transcription factor motifs involved in light, hormone and stress response. Reporter gene fusions showed that the studied regions are indeed transcriptional active promoters. Furthermore, transgenic lines of tobacco BY-2 cells demonstrated that the sugarcane mustang genes are modulated by phytohormones. The expression profile revealed that both classes are ubiquitously transcribed being the meristem the tissue that shows higher relative expression levels. The integrated analysis of these results suggests a possible involvement of MUSTANG proteins in the homeostasis maintenance of hormonal response.

Hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 (HT1) is an autosomal recessive disorder of the tyrosine degradation pathway. The defective fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase enzyme causes the accumulation of upstream metabolites such as fumarylacetoacetate (FAA), maleylacetoacetate (MAA), succinylacetone (SA) and p-hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid (pHPPA). In vitro and in vivo studies showed that the accumulation of these metabolites are detrimental to cell homeostasis, by inducing cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and endoplasmic reticulum stress, depleting GSH, inhibiting DNA ligase, causing chromosomal instability, etc. For in vivo studies different models of HT1 were developed. Most notably was the fah deficient mouse, whose neonatally lethal phenotype is rescued by the administration of 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione (NTBC). Although, this model most closely resembles the human phenotype with elevated tyrosine levels and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the model is not human genome based. Both the in vitro and in vivo studies suggested that DNA repair is affected in HT1. However, it is not yet clear which DNA repair mechanisms are affected and if only protein functionality is affected, or if expression of DNA repair proteins are also affected. Characteristic of HT1 is the high prevalence of HCC and the presence of liver mosaicism. The liver mosaicism observed in HT1 patients are the result of reversion of the inherited mutation to wild-type. The general consensus is that the reversion is the result of a true back mutation. However, the mechanism underlying the back mutation is still unresolved. It was suggested that cancer develops either through a chromosomal instability mutator phenotype, a microsatellite instability mutator phenotype, or a point mutation instability mutator phenotype. In HT1 only chromosomal instability was reported. The aims of this study were to contribute to the understanding of the molecular basis of the genetic mosaicism in hereditary tyrosinemia type 1. More specifically, determine whether baseand nucleotide DNA repair mechanisms are affected and to what extent, and to determine if microsatellite instability is found in HT1. To achieve these aims, a parallel approach was followed: i.e. to develop a HT1 hepatic cell model and to use HT1 related models and HT1 patient material. To assess the molecular basis of the genetic mosaicism in HT1, the comet assay, gene expression assays, microsatellite instability assays, high resolution melting and dideoxy sequencing techniques were employed. Results from the comet assay showed that the HT1 accumulating metabolites, SA and pHPPA, decreased the capacity of cells for base- and nucleotide excision repair. Gene expression assays showed that short term exposure to SA and/or pHPPA do not affect expression of hOGG1 or ERCC1. The expression of these genes were, however, low in HT1 patient samples. Microsatellite instability assays showed allelic imbalance on chromosome 7 of the mouse genome, and microsatellite instability in the lymphocytes of HT1 patients. Although high resolution melt and sequencing results did not reveal any de novo mutations in fah or hprt1, the appearance of de novo mutations on other parts of the genome can not be ruled out. To conclude, results presented in this thesis, for the first time show that in HT1 the initiating proteins of the base- and nucleotide repair mechanisms are affected, the gene expression of DNA repair proteins are low, and microsatellite instability is found in HT1. By contributing to the elucidation of the mechanism underlying the development of HT1-associated HCC, and providing evidence for the development of a mutator phenotype, the results presented in this thesis contributes to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the genetic mosaicism in HT1. In addition to these contributions, a hypothesis is posited, which suggests that a point mutation instability (PIN) mutator phenotype is the mechanism underlying the mutation reversions seen in HT1. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Biochemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012