Le monoxyde d'azote (NO) est une molécule gazeuse impliquée dans de nombreux processus biologiques chez les plantes, de la germination de la graine à la mise en place de réponses à des stress abiotiques et biotiques. Dans les interactions plante/ pathogène, le NO fait partie de l'arsenal de défenses de l'hôte. En réponse, les pathogènes ont développé des mécanismes pour contrer les effets du NO. Dans la symbiose fixatrice d'azote entre la légumineuse modèle Medicago truncatula et la bactérie Sinorhizobium meliloti, du NO a été détecté durant toutes les phases de l'interaction. L'équipe avait précédemment montré que la réponse de S. meliloti au NO est nécessaire au maintien de la symbiose puisque des nodules formés par une souche mutée dans le gène hmp (le gène hmp est induit par le NO et code pour une protéine qui dégrade le NO) sénescent prématurément. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons étudié 3 nouveaux gènes de S. meliloti induits par le NO : nnrS1, nnrS2 et norB. nnrS1 et nnrS2 codent pour deux protéines de fonction inconnue et norB code pour une NO réductase qui dégrade le NO. Nous avons montré que ces 3 protéines participent d'une part à la résistance des bactéries au NO en culture et d'autre part, au maintien de l'interaction symbiotique. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que ces 3 protéines sont impliquées directement ou indirectement dans la dégradation du NO et des résultats préliminaires suggèrent que NnrS1 présente une activité NO réductase. De plus, nous avons montré que NnrS1 et Hmp n'agissent pas seulement sur les bactéries mais aussi sur les protéines végétales. Il était connu que dans les nodules de M. truncatula, la glutamine synthétase (GS) végétale, une enzyme clé de la symbiose, est inhibée par tyrosine nitration, une modification post-traductionnelle dépendante du NO. Nous avons montré que NnrS1 et Hmp, en modulant le niveau de NO dans les nodules, contrôlent l'activité de la GS. Enfin des expériences préliminaires montrent que d'autres protéines (bactériennes et/ou végétales) pourraient être tyrosine nitratées. / Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous molecule involved in a large range of biological processes in plants from the seed germination to abiotic and biotic stress responses. In plant-pathogen interactions, NO is part of the defense systems. In response, pathogens have developed mechanisms in order to counteract the NO effects. In the nitrogen fixing symbiosis between the model leguminous plant Medicago truncatula and the bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti, NO has been detected at all stages of the symbiosis. The team had previously shown that the S. meliloti response to NO is necessary to maintain the symbiotic interaction since nodules elicited by a strain mutated in the hmp gene (hmp is induced by NO and codes for a flavohemoglobine that degrades NO) senesce prematurely. During this thesis, we have studied 3 new genes of S. meliloti whose expression is induced by NO: nnrS1, nnrS2 and norB. nnrS1 and nnrS2 encode two proteins of unknown function and norB codes for a NO reductase which degrades NO. We have shown that these 3 proteins participate on one hand in bacterial NO resistance in culture and on the other hand in maintaining the symbiotic interaction. Furthermore, we have shown that these 3 proteins are involved, directly or indirectly, in NO degradation and preliminary results suggest that NnrS1 displays a NO reductase activity. Moreover, we have shown that NnrS1 and Hmp are not only dedicated to protect bacteria against NO but also play a role on plant proteins. It was already known that, in M. truncatula nodules, the plant glutamine synthétase (GS), a key enzyme of the symbiosis is inhibited by tyrosine nitration, a NO post-translational modification. We have shown that NnrS1 and Hmp, by modulating NO levels in nodules, control the GS activity. Finally, preliminary experiments suggest that other proteins (from bacterial and/or plant origin), could be tyrosine nitrated.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important biological molecule within the body, which over production of this molecule in response to different stimulations can cause various inflammatory diseases. Over production of this molecule is caused by the induction of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzyme. This enzyme uses L-arginine as a substrate and therefore the presence and transport of this amino acid into the cells can be a key factor in regulating NO over production. Different signalling mechanisms have been implicated in the regulation of this pathway and one of which involves the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK). This family of proteins respond to inflammatory conditions and may mediate effects induced by inflammatory mediators. Of the MAPKs, the role of the c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway in the induction of iNOS is still controversial. JNK and its downstream target, the transcription factor Activator Protein-1 (AP-1), have shown contradictory effects on iNOS induction leading to controversies over their role in regulating iNOS expression in different cell systems or with various stimuli. The studies described in this thesis have determined the role of JNK/AP-1 on iNOS expression, NO production, L-arginine uptake and also on the transporters responsible for L-arginine transport into the cells. The studies were carried out in two different cell types: rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) and J774 macrophages which are both critically associated with the over production of NO in vascular inflammatory disease states. The first approach was to block the expression of the inducible L-arginine-NO pathway using SP600125 and JNK Inhibitor VIII which are both pharmacological inhibitors of JNK. The results from these studies showed that the pharmacological intervention was without effect in RASMCs, but inhibited iNOS, NO and L-arginine transport in J774 macrophages. In contrast, the molecular approach employed using two dominant negative constructs of AP-1 (TAM-67 and a-Fos) revealed a different profile of effects in RASMCs, where a-Fos caused an induction in iNOS and NO while TAM-67 had an inhibitory effect on iNOS, NO, L-arginine transport and CAT-2B mRNA expression. The latter was unaffected in RASMCs but suppressed in J774 macrophages by SP600125. Examination of JNK isoforms expression showed the presence of JNK1 and 2 in both cell systems. Moreover, stimulation with LPS/IFN- or LPS alone resulted in JNK phosphorylation which did not reveal any difference between smooth muscle cells and macrophages. In contrast, expression and activation of AP-1 subunits revealed differences between the two cell systems. Activation of cells with LPS and IFN- (RASMCs) or LPS alone (J774 macrophages) resulted in changes in the activated status of the different AP-1 subunit which was different for the two cell systems. In both cell types c-Jun, JunD and Fra-1 were increased and in macrophages, FosB activity was also enhanced. Inhibition of JNK with SP600125 caused down-regulation in c-Jun in both cell types. Interestingly this down-regulation was in parallel with increases in the subunits JunB, JunD, c-Fos and Fra-1 in RASMCs or JunB and Fra-1 in J774 macrophages. Since, SP600125 was able to exert inhibitory effects in the latter cell type but not in RASMCs, it is possible that the compensatory up-regulation of certain AP-1 subunits in the smooth muscle cells may compensate for c-Jun inhibition thereby preventing suppression of iNOS expression. This notion clearly needs to be confirmed but it is potentially likely that hetero-dimers formed between JunB, JunD, c-Fos and Fra-1 could sustain gene transcription in the absence of c-Jun. The precise dimer required has not been addressed but unlikely to exclusively involve JunB and Fra-1 as these are up-regulated in macrophages but did not sustain iNOS, NO or induced L-arginine transport in the presence of SP600125. To further support the argument above, the dominant negatives caused varied effects on the activation of the different subunits. a-Fos down-regulated c-Jun, c-Fos, FosB, Fra-1 whereas TAM-67 reduced c-Jun and c-Fos but marginally induced Fra-1 activity. Associated with these changes was an up-regulation of iNOS-NO by a-Fos and inhibition by TAM-67. Taken together, the data proposes a complex mechanism(s) that regulate the expression of the inducible L-arginine-NO pathway in different cell systems and the complexity may reflect diverse intracellular changes that may be different in each cell type and not always be apparent using one experimental approach especially where this is pharmacological. Moreover, these findings strongly suggest exercising caution when interpreting pure pharmacological findings in cell-based systems particularly where these are inconsistent or contradictory.