<p> The economic turmoil of the past decade has reinvigorated the debate over the use of public funds to support local Extension efforts. State Extension groups across the country have begun to demonstrate their worth in a variety of ways, including attempting to show both the behavioral and economic outcomes of Extension initiatives. However, showing the value of the 4-H Youth Development Program has proved challenging. The benefits of joining youth programs tend to be latent, not fully manifesting for years or even decades until participants mature into adults. Studies are starting to provide insights into the social, physical and mental rewards of joining youth development organizations such as 4-H, but these behavioral outcomes are disproportionally reported when compared to economic studies. From 2012-2013 families enrolled in Oklahoma's 4-H Youth Development Shooting Sports Project were surveyed about their recreational spending habits. Economic contributions for the state of Oklahoma, and impacts on local economies are estimated using primary data and an IMPLAN model. These economic analyses provide estimates of the economic worth of one youth project overseen by the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service. Subsequently, policy makers are provided justification of the project not only from a social, physical, and mental perspective, but are additionally provided economic indicators of the project's immediate worth.</p>

<p> The assessment of herbivore habitat quality is traditionally based on quantifying the forages available to the animal across their home range through ground-based techniques. While these methods are highly accurate, they can be time-consuming and highly expensive, especially for herbivores that occupy vast spatial landscapes. The Unimak Island caribou herd has been decreasing in the last decade at rates that have prompted discussion of management intervention. Frequent inclement weather in this region of Alaska has provided for little opportunity to study the caribou forage habitat on Unimak Island. The overall objectives of this study were two-fold 1) to assess the feasibility of using high-resolution color and near-infrared aerial imagery to map the forage distribution of caribou habitat on Unimak Island and 2) to assess the use of a new high-resolution multispectral satellite imagery platform, RapidEye, and use of the "red-edge" spectral band on vegetation classification accuracy. Maximum likelihood classification algorithms were used to create land cover maps in aerial and satellite imagery. Accuracy assessments and transformed divergence values were produced to assess vegetative spectral information and classification accuracy. By using RapidEye and aerial digital imagery in a hierarchical supervised classification technique, we were able to produce a high resolution land cover map of Unimak Island. We obtained overall accuracy rates of 71.4 percent which are comparable to other land cover maps using RapidEye imagery. The "red-edge" spectral band included in the RapidEye imagery provides additional spectral information that allows for a more accurate overall classification, raising overall accuracy 5.2 percent.</p>

<p> Two US Forest Service draft monitoring protocols are used to assess the effectiveness of design channels at road-stream crossings by comparing their physical channel dimensions to those in the natural channel. Level II physical monitoring is a time intensive, quantitative and statistically based procedure for assessing effectiveness at selected sites. Level I physical monitoring is a less detailed, rapid procedure limited to a few simple measurements and observations for assessing effectiveness at a large number of sites. Study objectives were to: 1) test and refine the field methods for collecting data by the levels I and II physical monitoring protocols; 2) find a meaningful way to combine the data collected by levels I and II into separate effectiveness evaluations by each protocol; and, 3) evaluate whether the level I protocol can be used as a proxy for the level II protocol. Where the two protocols systematically differ, field data help distinguish why. </p><p> Study results for all objectives (combined) include: improved field methodologies, recommendations for further development, and separate summary rubrics for the levels I and II monitoring protocols. The recommendations are of three categories; channel metrics/data collection, methods of scoring each metric, and sample sizes. Some of most significant of those recommendations are described within the following paragraphs. </p><p> Data collection methods might be improved to save time, increase the accuracy of protocol evaluations, and facilitate agreement between the levels I and II protocol evaluation results. The techniques by which the level I bankfull stage and coarse fraction of the gradation metrics are collected should incorporate level II methods. Instructions for collecting level II coarse fraction of the gradation data should specify measuring all particles within the channel, including particles much larger than the sampling frame. The level I method by which the representative reach is selected should incorporate a basic longitudinal profile survey in which only the most prominent grade controls separating slope segments are captured. Decreasing the allowable gradient difference between the level II design channel and representative reach might also improve accuracy. The method by which the levels I and II protocols compare channel units (or channel unit sequences) between the design and representative reach should be equivalent, as should the rules by which slope segments and channel units are defined. Finally, the channel metrics of low flow width and bed irregularity are inconsistent with the objectives of physical effectiveness monitoring, in that they are aspects of habitat, rather than strong controls on channel form. I suggest they be eliminated from the levels I and II protocols. </p><p> The level II summary rubric scores most metrics statistically by a Wilcoxon Rank-Sum test of medians. For most metrics, the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum test appears to be a reasonable way to compare representative reach and design zone data. For the metrics of bed and bank irregularity, however, a test of distributions (e.g., Kolmogorov-Smirnov) is recommended instead. The coarse fraction of the gradation metric would be more fairly assessed if the modes of the particle size (in phi units) were compared instead of the medians. Doing so would allow the design and representative reach gradients to be slightly different (as does the criteria for selecting a representative reach) without penalizing the metric score. </p><p> The levels I and II summary rubric tools created were used to evaluate twelve AOP road-stream crossing designs. The performance of the levels I and II summary rubrics were then assessed by the evaluation results at those twelve sites. Levels I and II generally seemed to provide effectiveness evaluations which agreed with site observations, data, and photographs. Further, the summary rubrics facilitated concurrent evaluation of the many channel dimensions which together affect the hydraulic conditions experienced by aquatic organisms. In addition, the simple utility of the levels I and II summary rubric tools should encourage effectiveness monitoring and help restoration practitioners learn from their mistakes, ultimately improving aquatic organism passage design methods and results. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)</p>

<p> The role of the national park ranger is to protect, conserve, and to provide for the enjoyment of our nation's heritage. Unfortunately, today's rangers are challenged with problems in the organizational leadership of the National Park Service. The agency is currently ranked in the bottom third of federal agencies in workplace health and leadership. </p><p> As some of the most visible leaders in the National Park Service, chief park rangers were queried through a descriptive qualitative design. The open-ended survey instrument was designed to answer the following two research questions: "Assuming that formal training in leadership influences successful leadership practice, what are the perceived results and outcomes of this training?" and "What are the factors, other than training, that influence an individual's desired practice of leadership?" A total of 29 chief park rangers of an eligible 51 chief park rangers in the Intermountain Region of the National Park Service responded to the survey conducted in January 2014. Their responses were categorized as to (a) the impact of the agency's training efforts on chief park rangers; (b) the barriers to the practice of leadership as experienced by chief park rangers; and (c) considerations for improvement in the leadership of the National Park Service. </p><p> The research concluded that training, although perceived to be limited in availability, was beneficial. However, training absent experience negatively influenced leadership practice. The predominant barriers to the desired practice of leadership were the lack of training, unfavorable organizational culture, and burdensome administrative practices. Although the survey was designed to focus on the issues of empowerment, fairness, senior leadership, and direct supervision, the respondents indicated that the barriers mentioned above were of primary concern rather than problems with these specific issues. The research suggested that the efforts of the National Park Service need to focus on enhancing leadership training program management and on initiating comprehensive reform of leadership practices to include active leadership development, enhanced accountability at all levels, and specific messaging from senior management. </p>

<p> I sampled macroinvertebrates in May, July, and October 2008 in Uvas Creek, a reservoir-regulated stream in south Santa Clara County, California, to assess what factors (including canopy closure, turbidity, and stream flow) downstream of the reservoir were related to food availability for rearing juvenile Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss). I found benthic and drifting macroinvertebrate biomass was considerably greater during most months in the more open-canopied two sites in the downstream reach as compared to the densely shaded, more turbid and silty two sites in the upstream reach. Abundance of important drifting aquatic invertebrates in May (chironomids, simuliids, and baetids) was proportional to benthic abundance, but large hydropsychids were relatively scarce in the drift. Terrestrial drift abundance correlated with canopy density, but differences were small compared to the substantial increase in aquatic drift in sunnier sites. Thinning of the canopy at select locations and reduction of sediment input to Uvas Creek and its tributaries due to vineyard and other operations could increase benthic macroinvertebrate productivity in the upstream reach, which would increase food availability for rearing juvenile Steelhead.</p>

<p> Understanding the factors which influence adopting sustainability practices in IHE is an important issue to develop more effective sustainability's methods and policies. The focus of this research is to find out a meaningful relationship between adopting sustainability practices and some of the characteristics of institutions of higher education (IHE). IHE can be considered as the best place to promote sustainability and develop the culture of sustainability in society. Thus, this research is conducted to help developing sustainability in IHE which have significant direct and indirect impact on society and the environment. </p><p> First, the sustainability letter grades were derived from "Greenreportcard.org" which have been produced based on an evaluation of each school in nine main categories including: Administration, Climate Change &amp; Energy, Food &amp; Recycling, etc. In the next step, the characteristics of IHE as explanatory variables were chosen from "The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System" (IPEDS) and respective database was implemented in STATA Software. Finally, the "ordered-Probit Model" is used through STATA to analyze the impact of some IHE's factor on adopting sustainability practices on campus. </p><p> The results of this analysis indicate that variables related to "Financial support" category are the most influential factors in determining the sustainability status of the university. "The university features" with two significant variables for "Selectivity" and "Top 50 LA" can be classified as the second influential category in this table, although the "Student influence" is also eligible to be ranked as the second important factor. Finally, the "Location feature" of university was determined with the least influential impact on the sustainability of campuses.</p>

The recent rapid decline in tropical and subtropical forests and subsequent loss of biodiversity, coupled to the threat posed by climate change, has led to a requirement for sustainable forest systems. Large-scale monocultures supply timber that can no longer be harvested in sufficient quantity from natural forests in subtropical and tropical regions. However, there is a general perception that forest systems need to be managed to provide multiple production and environmental services, including carbon (C) sequestration, restoration of soil fertility, and biodiversity. Overall, traditional plantation monocultures cannot meet all of these new objectives, and native and mixed-species plantations may provide an alternative, when provision of ecosystem services, besides timber, becomes a priority. The objective of this thesis was twofold. Firstly to assess C storage in native rainforest tree (hoop pine, Araucaria cunninghamii) plantations, planted as monocultures in subtropical Australia. Plantations were examined to evaluate their potential as a sustainable forest system for provision of high-value timber products and C sinks. The second objective was to contrast the traditional monoculture system with a multi-species system, and a mixed-species rainforest tree plantation was studied. These systems are receiving substantial attention from private forest growers as they could provide economic benefits, including greater productivity, coupled to biologically desirable outcomes, such as higher biodiversity. The focus of the second objective was to improve the design of mixtures for maximum wood production and C sequestration, so that other ecological benefits could be realised. Subtropical native hoop pine monocultures did not store soil C into long-term storage pools as rapidly as adjacent native rainforest or pastures. In addition, substantial amounts of soil nitrogen were lost from tree plantations, indicating that with current management, these systems may not be sustainable in the long-term. Overall, total C storage, including soil and aboveground biomass C, was higher in tree plantations than pastures highlighting the potential of native tree plantations for C sequestration. The mechanisms behind lower soil C storage of native hoop pine plantations, compared with rainforest and pasture, may be related to differences in soil C stabilization. While native forest and pasture systems stored C within soil aggregates and through organo-mineral interactions, tree plantations did not show a strong aggregate hierarchy and most soil C was associated with mineral-sized particles. Because soil minerals have a limited capacity to adsorb soil organic C, they may limit the C storage capacity of the studied tree plantations. We conclude that changes to management of hoop pine monocultures, such as increasing plant diversity in tree plantations, may create conditions similar to the native forest and promote greater C sequestration in plantation soils by stabilization through both soil aggregation and organomineral interactions. Since traditional monoculture forest production systems may not provide the multiple benefits needed for sustainable forestry, an alternative mixed-species tree plantation was investigated. We examined the dominant paradigm that mixtures of two fast growing species (Grevillea robusta and Elaeocarpus angustifolius) compete for site resources, while mixtures of shade tolerant (Castanospermum australe) and shade intolerant (G. robusta or E. angustifolius) species are complementary. Contrary to predictions, there was evidence for complementary interactions between the fast-growing species in terms of nutrient uptake, nutrient use efficiency and nutrient cycling. Preliminary model simulations of interactions between species for light indicated that G. robusta maintained the highest rates of photosynthesis under different light conditions and may be combined with C. australe and the more light demanding E. angustifolius in mixtures. Overall there was evidence for tree species combinations which could potentially sequester more C, in addition to other benefits including higher biodiversity and improved use of soil resources, in mixed-species plantations. Such knowledge is useful to encourage implementation of these new timber production systems.

The global decline of coral reef biodiversity requires rapid, efficient and practical solutions. No-take marine reserves and reserve systems and other managed marine conservation areas are currently considered one of the most effective management methods to deal with this ongoing decline. Although the effects, design, and establishment of coral reef reserves have been widely debated in the literature, few examples of systematic approaches to the design of reserve systems exist. Systematic conservation planning is a procedure to prioritise sites for their inclusion in reserve systems based on data and a set of conservation principles. For coral reefs the systematic design of reserve systems has been hampered by the lack of spatially explicit data, and the lack of practical recommendations to resource managers of how to apply new scientific findings. This thesis fills critical gaps at the interface between theory, planning, and implementation of coral reef reserve systems, and provides practical guidance to reef managers. In the first chapter, literature on marine reserves is discussed and the implications for coral reef reserves are considered. Chapter 2 discusses the lessons learned in the design and implementation of a community-based marine reserve in the Philippines. Reviewing relevant literature, a framework of ‘lessons learnt’ during the establishment of local protected areas is presented, highlighting the importance of a number of factors that are vital to the success of these reserves: (a) an island location; (b) small community population size; (c) minimal effect of land-based development; (d) application of a bottom-up approach; (e) an external facilitating institution; (f) acquisition of title; (g) use of a scientific information database; (h) stakeholder involvement; (i) the establishment of legislation; (j) community empowerment; (k) alternative livelihood schemes; (l) surveillance; (m) tangible management results; (n) continued involvement of external groups after reserve establishment, and (o) small-scale project expansion. To manage coral reef species it is important to understand the processes that influence their distribution. Chapter 3 identifies the environmental factors most influential in determining coral reef fish species distributions on a regional scale. Logistic regression models for 227 fish species related presence-absence data to four remotely determined environmental predictor variables: depth 500 m away from a reef, presence of a land-sea interface, exposure, and the distance to the nearest estuary. A novel method of evaluating model significance identified suitable models for 134 species. All four predictor variables were important for the distributions of the chosen suite of fishes. Depth was the most frequently significant variable in single variable models, and the proximity of a reef to an island was the least frequently important variable. For combinations of two predictor variables, depth and exposure as well as depth and distance from the nearest estuary were the prevalent predictors of fish distributions. Several fish species responded to the combination of the distance from an estuary and the presence of the terrestrial-marine interface, indicating that these species depend on intact coastal reef habitat, which is in decline near the main sediment-laden rivers. Significant models were predominantly developed for habitat specific species. These habitat specific species are of greater conservation concern than widespread species because of their restricted range, or because threats affect them more severely if they are selectively affecting their habitat. For this reason, species distribution modelling may be an efficient method to inform reserve design. The relevance of cross-taxon congruence to the suitability of taxa as conservation representation surrogates of coral reef biodiversity across the Indo-Pacific is tested in Chapter 4, using species lists of fishes, corals, and molluscs. Congruence is identified with a linear regression analysis of dissimilarity values. The utility of a surrogate was determined by the degree to which each taxon can represent the others in a marine reserve network using a greedy reserve selection algorithm. None of the taxonomic groups examined was capable of acting as a general conservation representation surrogate. Even a data-rich taxon like fishes could be severely under-represented in reserve systems designed based on a surrogate taxon such as corals, implying that data-deficient taxa are unlikely to be represented adequately where surrogate taxa are used for planning. Despite the high cross-taxon congruence between fishes and corals, and between corals and molluscs for some regions, cross-taxon congruence was not always a reliable indicator of conservation representation surrogacy. Consequently, in Indo-Pacific coral reef ecosystems one can only be sure that a target taxon is represented fully in a marine reserve network when data on this taxon are used to select reserve sites. The fifth chapter provides a theoretical and practical framework for incorporating ecological processes that span terrestrial, marine, and freshwater environmental realms into systematic conservation planning. Firstly the types of processes are classified as interactions that exist: a) on narrow interfaces such as inter-tidal zones; b) on broad interfaces such as mangrove swamps; c) along constrained connections such as corridors used by amphibian movements between natal ponds and adult habitat; and d) through diffuse connections like bird migrations. A framework of conservation planning approaches to promote the persistence of these types of processes and examples of how they might be implemented is developed. The framework focuses both on problem formulations consistent with existing decision support tools, such as the conservation planning software MARXAN, and on new methods. The review is aimed at a broad audience of scientists, planners, and managers and takes a practical and illustrative approach, providing examples of existing work and pointing readers to tools that are available to enhance conservation planning across realms. In the concluding chapter ideas from all chapters are synthesised. This chapter discusses how the approaches and frameworks presented here could be extended, and profitable areas for future research are suggested. Overall this thesis provides new insights, concepts, and tools that can assist reef managers and scientists struggling to minimise the loss of coral reefs.

The global decline of coral reef biodiversity requires rapid, efficient and practical solutions. No-take marine reserves and reserve systems and other managed marine conservation areas are currently considered one of the most effective management methods to deal with this ongoing decline. Although the effects, design, and establishment of coral reef reserves have been widely debated in the literature, few examples of systematic approaches to the design of reserve systems exist. Systematic conservation planning is a procedure to prioritise sites for their inclusion in reserve systems based on data and a set of conservation principles. For coral reefs the systematic design of reserve systems has been hampered by the lack of spatially explicit data, and the lack of practical recommendations to resource managers of how to apply new scientific findings. This thesis fills critical gaps at the interface between theory, planning, and implementation of coral reef reserve systems, and provides practical guidance to reef managers. In the first chapter, literature on marine reserves is discussed and the implications for coral reef reserves are considered. Chapter 2 discusses the lessons learned in the design and implementation of a community-based marine reserve in the Philippines. Reviewing relevant literature, a framework of ‘lessons learnt’ during the establishment of local protected areas is presented, highlighting the importance of a number of factors that are vital to the success of these reserves: (a) an island location; (b) small community population size; (c) minimal effect of land-based development; (d) application of a bottom-up approach; (e) an external facilitating institution; (f) acquisition of title; (g) use of a scientific information database; (h) stakeholder involvement; (i) the establishment of legislation; (j) community empowerment; (k) alternative livelihood schemes; (l) surveillance; (m) tangible management results; (n) continued involvement of external groups after reserve establishment, and (o) small-scale project expansion. To manage coral reef species it is important to understand the processes that influence their distribution. Chapter 3 identifies the environmental factors most influential in determining coral reef fish species distributions on a regional scale. Logistic regression models for 227 fish species related presence-absence data to four remotely determined environmental predictor variables: depth 500 m away from a reef, presence of a land-sea interface, exposure, and the distance to the nearest estuary. A novel method of evaluating model significance identified suitable models for 134 species. All four predictor variables were important for the distributions of the chosen suite of fishes. Depth was the most frequently significant variable in single variable models, and the proximity of a reef to an island was the least frequently important variable. For combinations of two predictor variables, depth and exposure as well as depth and distance from the nearest estuary were the prevalent predictors of fish distributions. Several fish species responded to the combination of the distance from an estuary and the presence of the terrestrial-marine interface, indicating that these species depend on intact coastal reef habitat, which is in decline near the main sediment-laden rivers. Significant models were predominantly developed for habitat specific species. These habitat specific species are of greater conservation concern than widespread species because of their restricted range, or because threats affect them more severely if they are selectively affecting their habitat. For this reason, species distribution modelling may be an efficient method to inform reserve design. The relevance of cross-taxon congruence to the suitability of taxa as conservation representation surrogates of coral reef biodiversity across the Indo-Pacific is tested in Chapter 4, using species lists of fishes, corals, and molluscs. Congruence is identified with a linear regression analysis of dissimilarity values. The utility of a surrogate was determined by the degree to which each taxon can represent the others in a marine reserve network using a greedy reserve selection algorithm. None of the taxonomic groups examined was capable of acting as a general conservation representation surrogate. Even a data-rich taxon like fishes could be severely under-represented in reserve systems designed based on a surrogate taxon such as corals, implying that data-deficient taxa are unlikely to be represented adequately where surrogate taxa are used for planning. Despite the high cross-taxon congruence between fishes and corals, and between corals and molluscs for some regions, cross-taxon congruence was not always a reliable indicator of conservation representation surrogacy. Consequently, in Indo-Pacific coral reef ecosystems one can only be sure that a target taxon is represented fully in a marine reserve network when data on this taxon are used to select reserve sites. The fifth chapter provides a theoretical and practical framework for incorporating ecological processes that span terrestrial, marine, and freshwater environmental realms into systematic conservation planning. Firstly the types of processes are classified as interactions that exist: a) on narrow interfaces such as inter-tidal zones; b) on broad interfaces such as mangrove swamps; c) along constrained connections such as corridors used by amphibian movements between natal ponds and adult habitat; and d) through diffuse connections like bird migrations. A framework of conservation planning approaches to promote the persistence of these types of processes and examples of how they might be implemented is developed. The framework focuses both on problem formulations consistent with existing decision support tools, such as the conservation planning software MARXAN, and on new methods. The review is aimed at a broad audience of scientists, planners, and managers and takes a practical and illustrative approach, providing examples of existing work and pointing readers to tools that are available to enhance conservation planning across realms. In the concluding chapter ideas from all chapters are synthesised. This chapter discusses how the approaches and frameworks presented here could be extended, and profitable areas for future research are suggested. Overall this thesis provides new insights, concepts, and tools that can assist reef managers and scientists struggling to minimise the loss of coral reefs.

The recent rapid decline in tropical and subtropical forests and subsequent loss of biodiversity, coupled to the threat posed by climate change, has led to a requirement for sustainable forest systems. Large-scale monocultures supply timber that can no longer be harvested in sufficient quantity from natural forests in subtropical and tropical regions. However, there is a general perception that forest systems need to be managed to provide multiple production and environmental services, including carbon (C) sequestration, restoration of soil fertility, and biodiversity. Overall, traditional plantation monocultures cannot meet all of these new objectives, and native and mixed-species plantations may provide an alternative, when provision of ecosystem services, besides timber, becomes a priority. The objective of this thesis was twofold. Firstly to assess C storage in native rainforest tree (hoop pine, Araucaria cunninghamii) plantations, planted as monocultures in subtropical Australia. Plantations were examined to evaluate their potential as a sustainable forest system for provision of high-value timber products and C sinks. The second objective was to contrast the traditional monoculture system with a multi-species system, and a mixed-species rainforest tree plantation was studied. These systems are receiving substantial attention from private forest growers as they could provide economic benefits, including greater productivity, coupled to biologically desirable outcomes, such as higher biodiversity. The focus of the second objective was to improve the design of mixtures for maximum wood production and C sequestration, so that other ecological benefits could be realised. Subtropical native hoop pine monocultures did not store soil C into long-term storage pools as rapidly as adjacent native rainforest or pastures. In addition, substantial amounts of soil nitrogen were lost from tree plantations, indicating that with current management, these systems may not be sustainable in the long-term. Overall, total C storage, including soil and aboveground biomass C, was higher in tree plantations than pastures highlighting the potential of native tree plantations for C sequestration. The mechanisms behind lower soil C storage of native hoop pine plantations, compared with rainforest and pasture, may be related to differences in soil C stabilization. While native forest and pasture systems stored C within soil aggregates and through organo-mineral interactions, tree plantations did not show a strong aggregate hierarchy and most soil C was associated with mineral-sized particles. Because soil minerals have a limited capacity to adsorb soil organic C, they may limit the C storage capacity of the studied tree plantations. We conclude that changes to management of hoop pine monocultures, such as increasing plant diversity in tree plantations, may create conditions similar to the native forest and promote greater C sequestration in plantation soils by stabilization through both soil aggregation and organomineral interactions. Since traditional monoculture forest production systems may not provide the multiple benefits needed for sustainable forestry, an alternative mixed-species tree plantation was investigated. We examined the dominant paradigm that mixtures of two fast growing species (Grevillea robusta and Elaeocarpus angustifolius) compete for site resources, while mixtures of shade tolerant (Castanospermum australe) and shade intolerant (G. robusta or E. angustifolius) species are complementary. Contrary to predictions, there was evidence for complementary interactions between the fast-growing species in terms of nutrient uptake, nutrient use efficiency and nutrient cycling. Preliminary model simulations of interactions between species for light indicated that G. robusta maintained the highest rates of photosynthesis under different light conditions and may be combined with C. australe and the more light demanding E. angustifolius in mixtures. Overall there was evidence for tree species combinations which could potentially sequester more C, in addition to other benefits including higher biodiversity and improved use of soil resources, in mixed-species plantations. Such knowledge is useful to encourage implementation of these new timber production systems.