Esta dissertação analisa o potencial de mercado do gás natural boliviano em trinta e sete municípios paulistas, localizados ao longo do gasoduto ainda em fase de projeto. A partir da análise dos últimos 15 anos da matriz energética, do Estado de São Paulo, é realizada uma extrapolação de tendências do crescimento da demanda de gás natural para os setores industrial, comercial, residencial, e de transportes, até o ano 2015. Contata-se que a oferta é menor que a demanda existente e que somente no setor industrial, o gás natural pode substituir diretamente 116 MW de energia elétrica, utilizada no aquecimento de processo. Este trabalho indica que a cogeração e a produção independente enquanto formas de geração descentralizada, utilizando gás natural e subprodutos da cana, é uma prática mais recomendável que a construção de uma unidade de termogeração centralizada e de grande escala. / This work analyses the potential Market for Bolivian natural gas at thirty seven municipalities of de São Paulo State. These municipalities are located on the neighborhood of the proposed pipeline route. Data of the last 15 years allowed the extrapolation natural gas demand trend until the year 2015, for the industrial, commercial, residential and transport sectors. It was concluded that supply is smaller than demand and that is possible to substitute natural gas for 116 MW of currently used electric power in heat processes. This work indicates that the cogeneration and decentralized independent power production, utilizing natural gas and sugar0cane by-products, is an option more attractive than the construction of a large centralized thermogeneration unit.

O desenvolvimento de uma indústria de gás natural no Brasil tem sido debatido com mais ênfase desde meados da década de 80, quando diversos estados, desejosos de diversificar sua matriz energética, provendo o mercado com um energético de inegável apelo ambiental, reuniram-se em Brasília, sob a égide da Comissão Nacional de Energia e iniciaram as primeiras projeções de demanda e de uso nal para o gás natural. Desde então, a indústria de gás no pais tem apresentado índices signicativos de crescimento, com a criação de novas empresas concessionárias de distribuição e o aumento do consumo, notadamente nos estados de São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Bahia e Rio de Janeiro. A perspectiva de importação de gás boliviano, com a assinatura, em 1992, de um primeiro protocolo de intenções entre a Petrobrás e a Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos- YPFB, gerou um longo processo de negociações entre a estatal brasileira e as distribuidoras de gás canalizado de São Paulo (Comgás), Minas Gerais (Gasmig), Rio de Janeiro (CEG), Mato Grosso do Sul (Enersul), Paraná (Compagás), Santa Catarina (SC Gás) e Rio Grande do Sul (SuIgás), visando a assinatura de contratos de suprimento com prazo de 20 anos. O principal impasse à concretização desses contratos diz respeito à definição do preço máximo do gás no ponto de entrega às concessionárias (\"city gate\")\', para o qual, acrescendo-se a margem de distribuição, ter-se-ia a adesão do consumidor. A grande dificuldade consiste em ajustar o preço imposto pela Petrobrás, o qual fugindo à lógica econômica, será equalizado em todos os pontos de entrega, de Corumbá e Porto Alegre, com o preço considerado competitivo para o mercado industrial, hoje abastecido basicamente com óleo combustível de alto teor de enxofre. O trabalho desenvolvido nesta dissertação tem por objetivo determinar o preço competitivo do gás natural em São Paulo, tanto no consumidor industrial como no city gate e quais os volumes contratuais que poderão vir a ser aceitos pela Comgás, atual concessionária estadual de distribuição de gás canalizado, caso haja flutuações nos preços ora ofertados pela Petrobrás. Considerando ainda o grande número de estudos de mercado desenvolvidos no Estado, desde meados da década de 80, neste trabalho também será apresentado uma análise e um resumo dos principais resultados desses estudos, buscando disponibilizar, para todos aqueles interessados no estudo. / The development of the natural gas industry in Brazil has been emphatically discussed since the mid-Eighties, when representatives of several Brazilian States willing to diversify their energy share and supply the market with a clean source of energy, met in Brasil\'s capital, sponsored by the former National Energy Commission and prepared the first long term gas consumption forecasts. Since then, the Brazilian gas sector has shown an enhanced growth, helped by the establishment of new local distribution concessionnaires and also by an increase in gas consumption in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. After the signature of a rst memorandum of understanding between Petrobrás and Yacimientos Fiscales Bolivianos - YPFB in 1992, the perspective of importing gas from Bolivia produced a long negotiation process involving the Brazilian oil company and the seven state concessionaires: Comgas(SP), CEG(R.J), Gasmig(MG), Compagás{PR), Enersul(MS), SC Gás(SC) and Sulgás (RS); the goal was to sign a 20 years gas supply agreement. The main constraint refer to the maximum affordable city gate price for which the gas will remain competitive after adding the distribution margin. It has been very difcult to match the city gate price imposed by Petrobrás, that has not been settled according to economical criteria and shall be equalized in all city gates - from the close to the border Corumbá up to the far Porto Alegre - with a consumer\'s gate price which can be considered competitive to the high sulphur content fuel oil consumed in most factories in the Southern and Southeastern regions. This dissertation aims at estimating the competitive price to natural in the state of São Paulo, both at city gate and consumer\'s gate as well as the economical demand to be contracted by Comgás, the current São Paulo gas distribution concessionaire, according to a set of prices variation. Taking into account the wide quantity of market studies developed in São Paulo for more than 10 years, and the variety of data presented, this dissertation will also present an abstract of their most important results in such a way to make available for those interested in the gas sector in São Paulo a piece of history of this fascinating industry, in which the author has being participating for the last 18 years. It should also be emphasized that one has looked for making the estimates and preparing the simulations in a very impartial manner. Nevertheless one shall take into account that this work carries a viewpoint of the gas distribution sector and also of the market; sometimes it may show some vehement statements about the pace of gas development in the country and also about the often.

A importação de gás natural da Bolívia possibilitará considerável aumento de consumo deste combustível na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP). Estudo de mercado recente concluiu pela viabilidade econômica de uma demanda industrial na região acima de 6 milhões de m\'/dia no ano 2000, quase o dobro do consumo atual. Neste trabalho procuramos avaliar, do ponto de visita da demanda , o impacto sobre o meio ambiente resultante desta mudança de combustível e, também, uma investigação sobre eventual mudança da eficiência energética do setor industrial convertido ao gás natural. Grande parte deste gás natural será consumido na substituição de óleo combustível (50%), na ampliação de sua utilização atual (40%) e no deslocamento da eletricidade (7,3%) e da biomassa (2,7%). Com os dados disponíveis sobre as emissões na RMSP , considerando os deslocamento dos outros combustíveis e o aumento de consumo de gás natural , adotando-se os coeficientes de emissão reconhecidos, efetuamos um balanço das emissões resultantes desta mudança. Para a avaliação da eficiência energética fazemos uma investigação direta das mudanças de consumo junto às indústrias já convertidas ao gás natural. O balanço realizado indica uma grande redução das emissões industriais dos óxidos de enxofre (94%) e uma redução apreciável da geração de gás carbônico nas indústrias convertidas ao gás natural ( 13,4%). Apresenta uma modesta redução de material particulado (7,6%) e de monóxido de carbono (4%) e uma considerável redução na geração de óxidos de nitrogênio (13,7%). A nossa investigação indica a possibilidade de redução de consumo energético nos setores pesquisados e nítidos ganhos na operação e manutenção das instalações industriais convertidas ao gás natural. / With the Brazilian importation of natural gas from Bolívia, it will be feasible a considerable increase in the consumption of this fuel in the Great São Paulo Area. Recent evaluations concluded by the feasibility of the industrial demand of natural gas in this area, higger than 6 million m3/day on year 2000 , more than two times the current consumption. In this work we carried out an evaluation , from the demand point of view, of the environmental impact due to fuel substitution and natural gas market increase. Also the investigation related to possible changes in energy efficiency of industrial sectors converted to natural gas users is developped here. The largest share of this natural gas will be utilised in the substituition of fuel oil (50%), increase on natural gas utilisation (40%), as well as replacement of eletricity (7,3%) and biomass (2,7%). Based in the available air quality data for this urban area, in the replacement of other fuels, and the acceptable emissions coefficients, we present a balance of the final situation. For the evaluation of energy efficiency , a direct investigation about the change in consumption at industries already converted to natural gas was performed. The study indicates a scenario where considerable reduction on industrial emissions of sulfur oxides (94%), a significant reduction of carbonic dioxide (13,4%), a modest reduction on particulates (7,6%) and carbon monoxide (4%), and a considerable reduction too on nitrogen oxides (13,7%). Our investigation indicated the possibility of reduction on the energy comsumption , of the industrial sectors investigated and clear earnings on operation and maintenance of industrial instalations converted to natural gas.

As reservas de gás Natural de Camisea constituem um potencial energético que devem influenciar as condições de desenvolvimento dos mercados de gás natural e de eletricidade na região sul da América do Sul (Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil, Chile e Peru). Como e realização destas reservas deverá exceder consideravelmente a demanda existente no Peru, a oferta de gás natural poderá ser orientada para mercados rentáveis na região. Pela sua distância das reservas de Camisea e pelas características da sua recente evolução, entendemos que os mercados mais indicados estão IocaIizados na Região Norte e Centro-Oeste do Brasil. Desse modo, a presente dissertação analisa a viabilidade técnica e econômica de expansão da oferta de gás natural por meio de um gasoduto, que teria como mercado nal os estados do Acre, Rondônia, Amazonas e Mato Grosso no Brasil, sendo o principal objetivo demonstrar a existência de uma alternativa viável. O gasoduto estaria composto por uma seção principal e dos ramais; o duto principal iria de Camisea (Peru) a Porto Velho (Brasil); o primeiro ramal ligaria Porto Velho a Manaus e o segundo ramal partiria de Porto Velho a cidade de Cáceres no Mato Grosso. Nesta cidade se conectaria com o gasoduto que fornecerá gás natural à usina termelétrica de Cuiabá e que, por sua vez, se conectará com o gasoduto Bolívia Brasil. Considerando o preço de US$ 1,00 / MMBtu na jazida de Camisea e uma taxa de desconto de 13% constata-se que, a integração energética entre Peru e Brasil mostra-se viável de um ponto de vista técnico e econômico mesmo considerando unicamente os mercados do setor elétrico e de grandes indústrias, (1) com demandas conservadoras (taxa de crescimento médio de 6% ao ano), (2) sem considerar a entrada de novas indústrias e (3) com uma capacidade ociosa média do gasoduto de até 39%. / The Cemisea´s natural gas reserves should play a major role in the natural gas and electricity market development in the southern region of Latin America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, and Peru). As the development of the Camisea gasfields will considerably exceed the existing demand in Peru, the supply of natural gas could be oriented to more profitable markets in the region. Give the short distance from the Camisea natural gas reserves and their recent evolution, the most suitable markets are located in the Northern and Central Western regions of Brazil. This work assesses the technical and economic feasibility for the natural gas supply through a gasline from Camisea that would have its market in the States of Acre, Rondônia, Amazonas and Mato Grosso in Brazil. The main objective is to show the existence of a feasible option. The gasline would consist of a main line and two branches. The main line would go from Camisea (Peru) to Porto Velho (Brazil); the first branch would link Porto Velho to Manaus and the second branch would link Porto Velho and the city of Cáceres in Mato Grosso. In Cáceres, this branch would be connected to the gasline that will provide natural gas to the Cuiabá thermal power plant and, then, to the Bolivia Brazil gasline. Considering a price of natural gas in Camisea of US$ 1,00/MMBtu and a discount rate of 13 percent, the energy link between Peru and Brazil would be feasible under a technical and economic perspective even when taking into account (1) the markets of the electric power sector and large industries with conservative demands (i.e., growth rates of 6 percente per year), (2) without considering revenues of new industries and (3) with an average idle capacity for the gasline up to 39%.

One of the objectives of this research was to develop mathematical models for transient flow in a gas transmission system. Models were developed from the continuity and the momentum equations. Different approximations in the equations result in the formulation of two different sets of partial differential equations, and these are the hyperbolic and the parabolic models. The Partial Differential Equations were numerically solved by an implicit finite difference technique. A Four Point Scheme was use to approximate the pressures, flows and their partial derivatives. With this scheme a second order accuracy for both spatial and time variables was achieved for both hyperbolic and parabolic models. The nonlinear equation sets from the finite differences discretization process are solved by using a Newton-Raphson iterative procedure. This procedure resulted in the formation of a sparse Jacobian Matrix. This large matrix was then compacted algebraically to reduce the time of the numerical solution. Although an implicit finite difference approximation was used in simulating the models, the important of the correct choice of the magnitude of the temporal and spatial steps should not be overlooked, particularly for high frequency disturbances 'Aliasing' problems will occur if temporal or spatial steps which are too large relative to the frequency of disturbance are used. Comparisons between the response of the hyperbolic and the parabolic models with different input boundary conditions were performed. As a result, recommendations are made on how the different models should be used in simulating real pipeline systems.

The last few years have witnessed momentous decisions in Soviet fuel policy. After long neglect, a sudden and all out priority was given to the production of petroleum and natural gas, and the creation of a massive petrochemical industry was ordered. The official support and the economically more rational climate of the post-Stalin decade proved a tremendous "boon to the gas, oil and petrochemical industries. In composition the fuel structure of the USSR is fast approaching that of the United States, and the petrochemical build-up— though younger— is also vigorous. The new fuel policy has already put its mark on the map of the country, but the full impact is yet to come. The Soviet energy picture, therefore, is in a state of flux and furious development, and the same goes for the chemical industry. The new fuels have not yet had time to create a crystallized and mature geographic pattern, as in the United States, but such a pattern is in emergence and can now be examined. This paper deals with the position of natural gas in the new Soviet fuel geography and, in addition, considers it’s contribution to the emerging petrochemical industry of the USSR. Since the early fifties the natural gas industry, which was completely undeveloped throughout the Stalin era, experienced a growth, the rate of which exceeded all other branches of the fuel industry of the USSR. Contributing less than one-fortieth to the fuel mix as late as 1955, its share has grown to an eighth in 1963 and is close to a sixth today. The Soviet Union is thought to have far greater resources of gas than any other country in the world but its fully proved reserves are still only a quarter of those of the United States. Over eighty percent of production today comes from only three regions, all in European Russia, yet the areal discordance between production centers and the major consuming areas is quite considerable. With one or two exceptions, the industrial centers of the country have no output on their own and generally are located far from supplying fields. This areal discordance and, consequently, the large-scale transport of natural gas over great distances are increasing, as the immense reserves, believed to exist south and east of the Urals, are proved and brought into production. The amount consumed, the share of gas in the fuel mix, and the sectorial distribution of consumption differ greatly in each economic region. However, the share of industry (the generation of electricity included) everywhere predominates, and far more heavily than in the United States. Variations in the amount consumed and the manner of utilization lend a distinctness of character to the gas industry in each Soviet region. Nevertheless, similarities in certain areas are great enough to permit regional groupings. The essay consists of two main parts: a general and a regional. In Part I the evolution of Soviet fuel policy, the production of, and markets for, natural gas, the characteristics of Soviet reserves and, finally, the Russian pipeline network are considered. Part II examines the principal regions where gas is produced and is utilized, attempts an integrated treatment of the role of gas in the regional economy, and analyses interregional variations. Because the research done so far on that very young industry usually treats it on a national plane, the analysis of regional profile, attempted in Part II, is considered to be the major contribution of this paper. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Raw natural gas contains acid gases such as H2S and C02 which must be removed before the gas can be sold. The removal of these gases is called "sweetening" and the use of Diethanolamine (DEA) as a solvent has become widely accepted by industry. The process is simply based on the absorption and desorption of the acid gases in aqueous DEA. Side reactions can occur when DEA reacts with the C02 to produce degradation compounds. This degradation causes a loss in valuable DEA and an increase in plant operating costs. The reaction between DEA and C02 was studied experimentally, using a 600 ml stirred autoclave, to determine the effect of temperature, DEA concentration, and reaction pressure. Degraded DEA samples were analysed using gas chromatography. A fast, simple, and reliable technique was developed to analyse degraded DEA samples, which was ideally suited to plant use. Over 12 degradation compounds were detected in the degraded DEA solutions using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy. Degradation mechanisms are proposed for the production of the various compounds. It was found that the degradation of DEA was very sensitive to temperature, DEA concentration, and C02 solubility of less than 0.2 g C02/g DEA. To study the effect of C02 solubility, which is a function of reaction pressure, simple solubility experiments were performed to cover the range of 100-200°C, 413.7-4137 kPa (60-600 psi) partial pressure of C02 and DEA concentration of 10, 20, and 30 wt % DEA. It was found that the reaction between DEA and C02 was extremely complex consisting of a mixture of equilibria, parallel, series, and ionic reactions. However, the overall degradation of DEA could be simply described by a pseudo first order reaction. The main degradation products were HEOD, THEED, and BHEP. It was concluded that C02 acted as a catalyst being neither consumed nor produced during the degradation of DEA to THEED and BHEP. HEOD was produced from DEA and C02, but was found to be unstable and could be converted back to DEA or react to form THEED and BHEP. The following simple kinetic model was developed to predict the degradation of DEA and the production of the major degradation compounds: [Figure 1] The model covered the ranges of DEA concentration 0-100 wt % DEA, 90-175°C, and C02 solubilities greater than 0.2 g C02/g DEA. Attempts were made to purify degraded DEA solutions. It has been claimed that activated carbon filters are useful in removing degradation compounds. However, tests with activated carbon proved it to be incapable of removing any of the major degradation compounds. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Chemical and Biological Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the requirement of the degree of Masters in Development Theory and Policy In faculty of Commerce, Law and management School of Economic and Business Sciences University of Witwatersrand, 2018 / Qatar’s economy is mainly dependent on oil and gas, making it vulnerable to global economic shifts and in need of diversification. Qatar’s state has always depended on Western consultancies, which largely advance a neoliberal agenda and so do not consider the long-term needs of Qatar’s economy. While a small body of academic literature has criticized Qatar’s economic strategy, this research provides an alternative strategy for diversification, recommending building linkages directed towards industrialisation. The study takes into account the needs of Qatar’s economy, focusing on diversification carried out in a stable way that creates employment, as well as other factors. The study finds that Qatar’s local content policies lack transparency, clarity, and monitoring institutions, as well as penalties and incentives to enforce the rules. Thus, there has been limited progress in forming the backward linkages knowledge linkages that would enable Qatar’s economic diversification. / XL2019

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I estimate overpressure in a seismic cross-section along a 12km traverse associated with a 2D/4C OBC line in the Columbus Basin, Trinidad, West Indies, where shallow gas reduces both data quality and apparent seismic velocity for P-waves, using a modified Eaton's equation for PS-waves. Pore pressure prediction using the modified Eaton's method involves velocity analysis, conversion of the stacking velocities to interval velocities via the Dix's equation, converting the interval velocity trends to pressures and mudweights, and comparison of the predictions to 3 wells surrounding the seismic line. In the presence of shallow gas, the magnitude and areal extent of seismically derived P-wave and PS-wave velocity deviates from regional trends along the seismic line. PS-waves show a more accurate areal extent of velocity deviation due to overpressure than the P-wave, which is also affected by the presence of shallow gas. I verify my derived velocities and predicted-pressure values using sonic log data and observed pressure from 3 wells. Direct comparison between the sonic-derived velocities and the seismic-derived velocities shows that shallow gas reduces P-wave velocity, and that PS-wave velocity is less affected. Pressure prediction is verified using mudweights and formation tests from well logs and drilling reports. I find pressure predictions associated with P-waves, especially in areas of shallow gas are less reliable than for pressure predictions using PS-waves. I conclude that PS-wave velocity provides a superior map of overpressure in this region in areas with shallow gas clouds. / text