Fundamental issues of natural resource management revolve around diverse worldviews, knowledges and practices, which cannot all be captured within the policy framework. The Western worldview, which reflects mainly the utilitarian, economistic view of resources, has influenced and shaped the trend management of natural resources has taken world-wide. The Western worldview contrasts with local knowledges, which are uniquely innovative, highly dynamic, tacit, contextual and/or locality-specific. This thesis explores the fuelwood problem in Nyando Division of Kisumu District in Kenya, seeking both a holistic understanding and an emphasis on the interface between official policy and local rural practice, including the varying knowledges. The study focused on two case study clans, Muga and Kadhier in Awasi and Kochogo Locations, respectively. Most fuelwood in the study areas is from on-farm and multiple accessible sources. This contradicts the 'fuelwood orthodoxy' school which associates fuelwood consumption with deforestation and 'woodfuel crisis'. Aerospace imageries clearly illustrated a change and decline in stand density of the woody vegetation cover in Nyando Division over time. Differences in fuelwood availability and inequalities in endowment of wood/tree resources in and between the study localities exemplify critical questions of entitlement in the face of 'abundance'. Tree planting was not seen to be synonymous with fuelwood availability. This scenario promotes the fuelwood trade, high dependence on fuelwood purchase and supplements of crop residues by local households. Land privatisation has exacerbated the situation. Distances travelled to collect fuelwood have decreased as people turn to alternative and purchased fuels. Opportunities in the study area for the resolution of the fuelwood problem include promotion of less culturally restricted and less economically valuable trees, and a more farmer-sensitive approach from government and NGOs which recognises farmers as active partners in the interface between policy and rural practice.

The Kunene River Mouth (KRM) is one of only two river mouths in Namibia. The Kunene river and river mouth is bisected by the international border between Namibia and Angola, and lies between two protected areas, Iona National Park in Angola and Skeleton Coast Park in Namibia. The governments of Namibia and Angola have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to link these two parks as a transfrontier park. This study further proposes a transfrontier Marine Protected Area to protect the marine environment surrounding the KRM and the Angola Benguela Front. The KRM is a fluvially dominated freshwater river mouth. The area is a biogeographically important biodiversity hotspot. The remoteness and pristine character contribute to the aesthetic appeal of the area. This study provides a profile of the KRM addressing its conservation value in terms of both biodiversity and aesthetic value, making use of the concept of “sense of place”. An analysis of all current and potential stakeholders is presented and their interests, activities and potential threats are evaluated. The main stakeholders are Government: the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, the Angolan Government, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Namwater, Ministry of Mines and Energy, and the Kunene Regional Council. The private sector presently has a small stake in the area, with the exception of the Northern Namibia Development Corporation who is prospecting for diamonds at the KRM. Although the area has great tourism potential there is no tourism development currently underway or planned. The threat analysis suggests that the KRM is under severe threat from inappropriate development, both locally as well as within the catchment. Mining and prospecting were identified as the greatest threat, whereas tourism poses the least threat to the area. It is suggested that appropriate tourism is the most suitable development for this sensitive area. There is currently no coherent management strategy in place for the KRM. The current environmental legislation is ineffective. The need for a stringent adaptive management regime is identified and management goals for the area are suggested. It is further suggested that the concepts of “Thresholds of Potential Concern” and “Limits of Acceptable Change” are useful to monitor indicators for biophysical components and development activities respectively and to maintain a “Desired State” for the area. This “Desired State” must be the result of a participatory process. To be effective stakeholders must reach consensus on the “Desired State”. An eight step participatory process is proposed to develop and implement an adaptive management and development strategy for the KRM. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.