Conservancies are viewed as playing an important role in enabling the landscape-scale management of biodiversity and ecosystem services by extending conservation areas beyond the boundaries of formally protected areas (PAs). In the South African context of the Biodiversity Stewardship Programme (BSP), conservancies are viewed as a viable landscape-scale approach to stewardship that can contribute to meeting government conservation mandates of conserving biodiversity and expanding its protected area network outside state PAs, through partnerships with private landowners. Using the landscape approach theory, I determined that the landscapescale context of biodiversity and ecosystem services creates common pool resources (CPRs) that require collective action in the form of integrated management planning across private property boundaries. In this context, conservancies create multi-tenure conservation areas with landscape meanings and associated benefits that require landscape-scale collective action. However, using property and collective action theories, I deduced that when landowners in a conservancy seek to engage collective action for landscape-scale conservation objectives under the BSP, they are challenged by the tension between individual meanings defined at the scale of their own property and landscape-scale meanings that straddle property boundaries. This tension is reinforced by property rights in which each actor holds resources under a private property rights regime while the landscape-scale meanings of CPRs need to be addressed in a common property rights regime context. Based on this complexity, my research set out to determine peoples’ meanings attached to the concept of conservancy and to illustrate how these meanings influence the ability to attain collective action necessitated by the CPR management regimes superimposed on private property rights regimes. This was with the view to refine the concept of conservancy to enable those who establish and engage with conservancies to better appreciate the implications and the nature of the governance regime that is required for success. My results show that the success of a conservancy as a landscape approach is dependent on landowner commitment to collective action. Landowner commitment is also influenced by a shared understanding of the conservancy as a multi-tenure conservation area managed collectively for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services across private properties. Thus Conservancy members need to develop an understanding of the conservancy as an area of contiguous multiple private properties that require collective management through integrated management planning, guided by a Dargle Conservancy management plan. Conservancy members also need to develop an understanding of the contiguous properties as encompassing biodiversity and ecosystem services that require common property rights regimes for their sustainable use and management. This explicit landscape approach will encourage landowner commitment to the conservation objectives set out in the multi-tenure conservation areas. I use my research findings to identify three issues for further research in community-based conservation areas as a landscape approach to conservation: firstly, research that focuses on developing integrated management plans for landscape-scale bio- and eco-regions by designating contiguous private properties into different categories of PAs according to collectively agreed conservation objectives; secondly, research that focuses on developing appropriate management regimes based on a model of multi-tenure conservation areas managed collectively for the conservation of biodiversity across private properties; and thirdly, research that focuses on establishing social structures for the development of adequate capacity and decision-making at the conservancy level to implement a landscape approach that supports ecological functions beyond individual boundaries. Building on this research will provide an important continuous learning process between conservancies and conservation agencies. Such learning is necessitated by the complexity of continually changing social and ecological systems that influence perceptions and behaviours. / Thesis (Ph.D)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

South Africa is confronted by a number ofproblems which include: a high and rapidly increasing population, conditions of poverty, hunger, illiteracy, unemployment, and a degrade9 environment. These problems are associated with inappropriate land use and development and the unwise utilization of natural resources. This work investigates the rural land use dynamic within KwaZulu-Natal and specifically where many of these conditions are most evident, namely: within traditional land tenure areas. The need for an effective, transparent, measurement-based and environmentally linked land use management and regulation system is investigated and a theoretical model is developed with sustainable development as the central focus. The proposed methodology modifies South African approaches to land use management and regulation and draws on the rationale employed within intemationalland use management and state ofthe environment research. The model has the following aims: to strive towards the collective achievement of sustainability as the underlying goal within the planning and plan implementation process; to develop the capability of measuring the extent to which planning policies, goals and programmes are achieved; to guide their review and reformulation; to encourage the inclusion and integration of the policies and programmes of all public and private agencies; and thereby to strengthen the link between land use planning and land use management. The implementation of this model entails an iterative process of performance indicator identification, selection, application and evaluation with full stakeholder participation. The findings suggest that: the sensitive and gradual application of this system is likely to guide land use towards sustainability, initially by non-statutory means. Later, as stakeholder knowledge and understanding increases, this system has the potential to fulfil a valuable statutory function. It is proposed that the practical application of this theoretical approach will facilitate the accurate evaluation and review of policy, plans and programmes during implementation, which will enhance the management and regulation of rural land use towards sustainability within the context of the social, economic and biophysical environment. / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programmes are implemented to ensure sustainable use and protection of the environment through appropriate capacity enhancement and empowerment mechanisms. CBNRM is an approach that has multiple objectives, such as enhancing the capacity, of communities to manage resources sustainably, and creating employment opportunities to enhance livelihoods of the communities. CBNRM programmes are implemented in South Africa by different government departments and organisations to achieve these objectives. Despite such interventions, communities often display insufficient knowledge and capacity necessary for effective participation in addressing natural resource management issues. The main objective of this study was to establish the effect of a CBNRM programme on the capacity of the KwaPitela community to manage natural resources for sustainable use. To address the main objective of this study, three sub-objectives were identified: firstly, to determine the community members’ ability to apply skills and knowledge in the management of natural resources for sustainable use; secondly to determine the community’s ability to participate with different stakeholders in the management of natural resources; and thirdly determine the community’s ability to make decisions about the management of natural resources for sustainable use. A basic qualitative research design was used and data collection methods included semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Selected documents were analysed to confirm specific aspects of the qualitative data. The participants of this study were the KwaPitela development committee, members of the community, and stakeholders mandated to equip the KwaPitela community in CBNRM competencies. Regarding the first sub-objective it was evident that the development committee can apply planning, networking, and leadership skills as a result of the CBNRM programme. The development committee and members involved in the harvesting of natural resources displayed knowledge related to invasive alien species, legislative processes, and the importance of natural resources as an essential for their livelihood. These skills and knowledge were, however, not applied by the community members who were not involved in natural resource management and leadership processes. The development committee and members of the community are still in need of further skills and knowledge, for example entrepreneurship skills and knowledge on how to sustain projects, in order to successfully implement the land use management plan, as developed during the CBNRM programme. Meeting the second sub-objective, it was evident that the development committee had the capability to facilitate participation with stakeholders, but the development committee felt that they were not getting enough support from the stakeholders. In assessing the third subobjective, it became evident that the development committee was able to make well - informed decisions in natural resource management, but they lacked the ability to influence and implement the decisions taken. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The spotlight on rural developed and sustainable livelihoods has increased over the years. Additionally, the importance of natural resources (specifically in poorer contexts and rural areas that have limited infrastructure and services) is well documented. This research focuses on examining the natural resource asset base of rural households in KwaDube, a rural community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It argues that natural resources are central to rural households. The research further asserts that, for rural households to have sustainable livelihoods, their natural resources should be available, diverse and accessible. A diverse natural resource asset base provides rural households with a variety of strategies and means for strong livelihood outcomes and coping mechanisms during times of shocks and stress. The research establishes that KwaDube has 28 natural resources used by households of which land is the primary resource. However, households of KwaDube have limited control and access to land and other natural resources in their community. Research further establishes that due to the influence of patriachal traditions which favor men over women in the allocation of resources and opportunities, there is limited equitable access to natural resources. Added to the impact of partriarchy, this study observes that the other main challenge to natural resource accessibility and use is the continuity of Apatheid policies and traditional administrative arrangements which provided access and entitlements to specific groups of people at the expense of others (age, race and gender). The research notes the numerous challenges faced by rural households that highlight their inability to have adequate resources. There is generally very little if any ownership in the form of private property. The available natural resources such as land, forests and water are public property and are degraded. There are inadequate laws protecting use of public property, hence households find themselves exposed to over-consumed natural resources associated with the tragedy of the commons. Diminishing resources mean households continue to struggle to build strong natural resource asset bases. Consequently, households adopt livelihood strategies that are survivalist in nature such as seeking jobs elsewhere, diversifying their income by engaging in off-farm employment and engaging in petty trade using some of the natural resources in KwaDube. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The study explores the ways in which the nature conservation policy of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife enhances the promotion and implementation of community development. This study is partially informed by the United Nations conferences on the Environment and Development, especially the latest one of these conferences. the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) which was held in South Africa in 2002. The conference reinforced the need for the integration of the social, political, economical and ecological elements in conservation and development initiatives. As South Africa is a developing country, it is understandable that development is a central issue in the policy agenda of all spheres of government. Government and public entities are identified as some of the key role players responsible to champion and drive the course of development. Provincial government in South Africa is tasked with environmental management as well as conservation alongside development. This relationship informs the essence of this study. It identifies that national environmental policy now requires conservation authorities to have a more developmental focus. This study is important because it examines the changing policy perspectives and implementation strategies of conservation and development. The study will focus on how Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife's (which is KwaZulu-Natal 's nature conservation authority) policy addresses integration of issues of community development and development in KwaZulu-Natal. The theoretical basis of this project is found on theories of public policy and policy implementation. The crux of the study is to determine the extent to which Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife's nature conservation policy seeks to implement development-led-conservation. The findings show a broad policy commitment to community development. However, when one takes a closer look at the implementation of their policies at one particular reserve (Ithala Game Reserve) then a number of implementation gaps become clear. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005. / Public Policy Partnership.

The report identifies a case study in which there was competition for land between conservation and low income settlement users. The nature of these potentially conflicting interests were identified and an evaluation of how these were played out followed. The fact that the interest of the low income settlement users carried the background of apartheid based discriminations, made the situation a sensitive one. Moreover, it was a unique case whereby the needs of a community's rural lifestyle were to be met in an urban environment. The planning process had political overtones which directed the decision-making process and consequential planning. The study informs development and planning, that in post-apartheid planning, there is the need to incorporate social reconstruction within urban and rural reconstruction. In planning and development processes, planning should play a fundamental role of providing input to guide the process. The input provided by planning should be cross-sectional in the context of conflicting interests, in order for the final plan to represent a compromise, serving the better interests of all the interested parties. / Thesis (M.T.R.P.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1996.

The present context of community based natural resource management is characterized by multiple stakeholder involvement, a situation that presents challenges in aligning vision for common action. A 'systemic intervention' involved the staff and stakeholders of the Farmer Support Group, a non-profit rural development organization based in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The 'creative design of methods' guided inquiry in aligning vision of a Landcare ethos amongst the organization and their stakeholders, and in directing action toward the vision. Critical Systems Thinking is outlined as the framework in which the intervention methodology is encompassed. The importance of applying a broad range of environmental education methods to Landcare is established through drawing from present debates and contexts in environmental education and community based natural resource management. The 'organization as community' approach to organizational learning and development is highlighted as a means of creating synergy of purpose across staff and stakeholder boundaries. The intervention's methodology consisted of three phases: drawing out perspectives, forming a common vision in a mission statement, and developing action plans based on the mission statement. Outcomes included: identification of three schools of thought that drove perspectives on the role of environmental education in natural resource management strategies, formation of the FSG Landcare Ethos Mission Statement, which was inclusive of all stakeholder perspectives, and integration of the mission statement into FSG projects through action plans. The intervention found that aligning staff members and stakeholders in common vision and action towards developing a Landcare ethos could be accomplished through a blend of environmental education approaches that facilitate sustainable decision making by building capacity in individuals and communities in a participatory and locally relevant manner that is attentive to predominant perspectives and adaptive to change. / Thesis (M.Agric.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

For over a century, wildlife in Southern Africa has come under the exclusive management of states, which tends to centre on the exclusion of local communities from wildlife areas. In many cases, this approach has led to the hostility of wildlife management policies by excluded communities. This widespread dissatisfaction has caused a paradigm shift in conservation thinking towards a more community-based conservation (CBC) approach. A major assumption of this new approach is that providing socio-economic benefits on a sustainable basis to formerly excluded communities will result in conservation. Indeed, some advocates of this management regime have stressed community incorporation and inclusion as the only path to conservation. As a result, numerous CBC initiatives have been implemented throughout the African sub-region over the past ten years with varied success. As there is no alternative to the CBC concept that attempts to enhance all three elements, namely the economic, social and biological components, of the sustainable development premise in conservation areas, it is imperative to ensure that CBC initiatives are monitored and evaluated in order to determine what the recurring problems and challenges are in implementing and running such initiatives so as to achieve the three sustainable development goals. By establishing what these recurring challenges are during the implementation process, a broad framework of necessary principles, criteria, pre-requisites and co-requisites can be established to guide future CBC initiatives. The purpose of this study is to identify the successes, challenges and problems that have either enhanced or detracted from the socio-economic and biological elements of CBC initiatives during the implementation processes of different projects. Previous documented project examples from around the sub-region, as well as two case study examples of CBC initiatives in KwaZulu-Natal, namely the Mabaso Community Game Reserve and the Usuthu Gorge Community Conservation Area, are used in this thesis to best determine how to enhance the social and economic elements of the sustainable development premIse III order to achieve, in theory, the biological components necessary for a successful conservation strategy. The findings within this study, from the case study examples and secondary research, show that there are several recurring challenges and problems shared by initiators of CBC initiatives throughout the sub-continent. Issues include long project implementation periods due to government bureaucracy, planning procedures and the necessity to gain community support; debates over devolution of authority to local municipalities or tribal authorities; the risks of elite capture and/or the free rider concept whereby individuals do not change their hunting practices despite communal benefits accruing from wildlife conservation; community participation and benefit distribution; as well as the need to have clear communication channels between the community and the project implementers. The main conclusions drawn from this study emphasise several needs necessary for making CBC initiatives sustainable for the long term. Firstly, CBC initiatives need to conserve as well as create a variety of different ways for communities to earn a living and to minimise any disruption by CBC projects of pre-existing livelihood strategies carried out by local residents. Secondly, there needs to be a provision of outside assistance to facilitate local projects and to ensure the development of the necessary skills for local communities to eventually take on the initiatives themselves. Thirdly, clearly defined property rights, as well as conflict resolution mechanisms and the enforcement of any rules and regulations are further crucial criteria. Fourthly, it is important for communities to avoid exploitation and to maximise any benefits accruing from private investors utilising local community resources by developing favourable legal contracts. Fifthly, it was found that the inclusion of tribal structures in both the case study examples increased the trust and feeling of ownership by the respective communities. Finally, it was found that CBC projects require specific locations and the right criteria to be in place for their successful implementation. Not all communities or communal areas meet these criteria, which is why CBC should be seen more as an important and necessary supplement to conservation strategies as opposed to a holistic conservation policy tool. / Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of Natal, Durban, 2004.

A social survey of the communities living adjacent to the Pongolo river floodplain was carried out, in order to understand the perceptions of the impact of artificial flood releases on the general use of natural resources of Pongolo floodplain in terms of: general resource use, stream flow, water quality and subsistence agriculture. The results show that floodplain communities perceive that the present artificial flood releases which are intended to maintain the environmental requirements of the floodplain are not meeting their needs nor the needs of the environment. Key perceptions on environmental impacts identified are: (i) reduction in water required to maintain floodplain resources, (ii) deterioration in water quality and (iii) decrease in available floodplain land and natural resources. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Colonial conservation emerged as colonial conservationists perceived the threat of deforestation, climatic change and famine. The sense that there were limits to nature's capacity to meet human demands, led to colonial conservationism which portrayed nature as separated from human life. Protected areas (PA's), both forest and game reserves, were created that excluded local people in terms of both access and management. In South Africa the National Forests Act 84 of 1998 has created new conditions in which there is a greater opportunity for communities to benefit from indigenous forests, which apart from their other uses are a valuable resource from the point of view of ecotourism. This study thus seeks to assess moves from exclusivist to community based forms of environmental decision-making (EDM) at Dlinza Forest Nature Reserve. This study provides an example of an ecotourism project started during the democratic period in South Africa and at the height of the global move to community conservation. First however it traces the management history of the forest in order to assess change in the management style over time. The study investigates rural people's attitudes towards the forest and it was found that although the forest was preserved for many years, the rural people still feel much attached to it as a result of the beliefs they have about it. The study contrasts different visions of the forest in terms of competing use and non-use values, and demonstrates that each group exercised its will and attempted to display "ownership" of the forest through a number of activities undertaken at the forest. An analysis of the public participation followed in terms of the ecotourism project was undertaken to determine the extent to which the rural community was involved. Theoretical models of environmental decision-making were applied in order to identify the mode of decisionmaking used historically and in the present. The results of the study show that poor rural people are still marginalized in EDM despite the new philosophies of PA management and the democratising shifts taking place in the country. Resistance to the policies and regulations of the reserve has been observed and this may lead to severe degradation of the resources that the reserve is meant to protect. The study thus recommends strengthening locally based EDM via partnerships as partnerships do not only provide relief for the consequences of conflict, they also strive for a win-win situation. The study concluded that greater involvement of the rural community requires a change in the mindset of conservation authorities, in particular with regard to the issue of representivity in EDM. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2004.