Mid-Late Pleistocene species are reported to have sinuses of taxonomic and functional interest. Frontal hyperpneumatisation in Homo heidelbergensis is one of few hypothesized autapomorphies of this controversial taxon and Neanderthal sinuses are also said to be distinctively large, resulting from cold adaptation and explaining diagnostic craniofacial morphology. Variation in sinus size within and between populations of recent H. sapiens has been described, but has not been quantified. Sinus variables in Mid-Late Pleistocene hominins were investigated to illuminate causes of craniofacial variation and clarify alpha taxonomy, whilst evaluating theories of sinus function and advancing the understanding of adaptation in this group. Sinus volumes were measured from CT data and geometric morphometric methods were used to identify associated shape variables in a large sample of fossil and extant hominins. Relationships were investigated between these sinus variables and taxonomic/population, dietary, and climatic variables. The results demonstrate that the sinuses have no detectable direct function in Mid-Late Pleistocene hominins but they do respond to selective pressures, such as diet and climate, indirectly via craniofacial adaptation. There is also a relationship with neutral population differences in craniofacial morphology, for at least the frontal sinus. These effects are of varying strength, and it is likely that stochastic development also plays a part in determining differences in individual volumes. Inter-taxon comparisons support frontal hyperpneumatisation as a distinctive, perhaps derived, trait in H. heidelbergensis, but show that H. sapiens has hypopneumatised maxillary sinuses, rather than H. neanderthalensis being hyperpneumatised. Whilst the causes of extremely large sinuses in H. heidelbergensis remain uncertain, small maxillary sinuses in H. sapiens are suggested to result from their derived craniofacial size and morphology. These conclusions build on previous studies to over-turn long-standing but unfounded theories about the pneumatic influences on Neanderthal morphology and the functional nature of sinuses, whilst opening up exciting questions about relationships between strain, climate, pneumatisation, and intraspecific variation.

The U/Th dating method has been applied to five archeological sites in France. The U/Th method relies upon the co-precipitation of uranium with calcium carbonate in speleothems formed in caves. Because 230Th forms in the calcite from the decay of 234U a radiometric clock is begun in the newly deposited calcite. Dates are derived from measuring the isotopic abundances of the uranium and thorium in the calcite. For many archeological samples, preroasting of the sample before analysis is necessary to improve the yields. Normally, relative dates for archeological sites are derived from the comparison of paleoclimatic interpretations determined from sedimentological, faunal, and palynological studies of the cave sediments with global climatic records. These methods have established that the Mousterian culture and Neanderthals appeared in Europe at the beginning of the Würm, 80 Ka BP. Absolute dates determined for samples from Lachaise, Montgaudier, Pech de l'Aze, Abri Vaufrey, and Grotte 13, where archeological or faunal material is associated stratigraphically with speleothems sampled, have established that there were several regional climatic phenomena experienced in southern France. These events are dated at 80 to 120 Ka BP, interpreted to be the Riss/ Würm interglacial, and at 38 to 50 Ka, interpreted to be the Würm I/II interstadial. Furthermore, archeological materials and human skeletal remains associated with these sites and the speleothems therein, have proven that the Nean~erthals must have evolved prior to 150 Ka BP, but that they did not develop their Mousterian culture until about 125 Ka BP. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

The timing of skeletal growth spurts in modern humans is unique among mammals. In modern humans, peak growth occurs after puberty during the adolescent period, whereas large-bodied non-human primates exhibit an earlier juvenile growth spurt. Based on limited data, previous researchers have suggested that Neanderthals experienced a late, modern human-like adolescent growth spurt. In this study, I examined the timing of stature and facial growth spurts in Neanderthals to test the hypothesis that Neanderthals grew like modern humans. In order to assess the timing of Neanderthal growth spurts, I plotted a non-human primate regression estimate of age at puberty onto Neanderthal stature and mandibular velocity growth curves. The mandibular growth curve exhibits a discernible growth spurt after puberty, reminiscent of the modern human adolescent growth spurt. Future research on additional regions of the skeleton is necessary to further refine this estimate for the timing of Neanderthal growth spurts. / by Amy C. Lupo. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

El Salento (SE de Italia) es un territorio rico de evidencias arqueológicas en cueva de Paleolítico medio. Los yacimientos han sido parcialmente explorados en los años 60 y 70 de 1900. Los materiales líticos han sido divulgado examinando solamente los objetos retocados. Esta tesis se centra en el estudio de los niveles mas antiquos de dos yacimientos cercanos: Grotta del Cavallo y Grotta Mario Bernardini. El obietivo es de analizar la variabilidad tecnica segundo un appoche comportamentale para valuar las estrategias economicas y las capacidades tecnicas de estos grupos humanos. Portanto se ha utilizado el principio teórico de l'análisis tecnológica y el empleo de cadenas operativas como herramienta interpretativa para leer un proceso. Igualmente se han abiertas varias líneas de investigación como el estudio geológico para el aprovisionamiento de materias primas o la anàlisis tecno-morfo-funcional de los retocados. En los últimos quince años habían visto detrás de las industrias líticas de Paleolitico medio una grande riqueza desde el punto de vista de las opciónes técnicas y económicas. Esta tesis mostra esta riqueza en los conjuntos líticos de Grotta del Cavallo, presentando un desconocido cambio técnico en la sequencia y contrinuendo a enriquecer el debate sobre la variabilidad de Paleolítico medio. / Salento region (SE Italy) is an area rich in archaeological site concerning Middle Palaeolithic. The caves have been explored during 60's and 70's and are published only partially, using a typological approach focused just on retouched tools. My research concerns the analysis of ancient layers of Grotta del Cavallo and Grotta Mario Bernardini. The goal is to analyze the economic strategies and technical abilities of Neanderthal people in this area. For this reason we use the technological analysis of the manufacturing process based on"chaîne opératoire" and we opened different research-line like geological survey for raw materials or the techno-functional analysis of retouched tools. In the last fifteen years we sow behind Middle Palaeolithic lithic industries a big richness in terms of technical and economical options. This research shows this richness in the assemblages from Grotta del Cavallo, presenting an unknown technical variability and a technical change between layer L and the lower layers. The original data that we propose enrich with our knowledge of technical variability during Middle Palaeolithic showing the existence of a structured system built from human being able to integrate different needs and to adjust to available resources.

In the last ten years it has become apparent that the radiocarbon dating method can significantly underestimate the age of samples > 25 ka BP because routine pre-treatment protocols may not remove sufficient contaminants. In response, new pre-treatment protocols have been proposed, and two in particular, ultrafiltration of bone collagen and ABOx-SC of charcoal, show promise. This thesis has tested whether these methods effectively remove contaminants without adding carbon in the laboratory. Subsequently it used them, alongside careful selection of humanly modified material and Bayesian statistical analysis, to test the radiocarbon-based chronology of the Iberian Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. Both protocols were found to effectively remove environmental contaminants, but add small amounts of laboratory-derived carbon. Using known age standards, a correction has been calculated for the ultrafiltration protocol to counter the effect of the laboratory-derived carbon. A similar correction could not be made for the ABOx-SC protocol due to uncertainties in the age of the standards and underlying chemical processes. However, the effect of such contamination did not have a significant effect on the chronologies developed for the sites examined in this thesis. 96 new radiocarbon dates have been obtained from the Iberian Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. A further 50 dates recovered from the literature and are regarded as reliable. The most alarming finding of this thesis is that routine pre-treatment protocols may cause dates to be underestimated by more than 10 ka ¹⁴C years. The implication of offsets of this magnitude in Iberia is significant: whereas a prolonged survival of Neanderthals south of the Ebro valley has been observed in the published dataset, this study could not replicate such ages. Preservation did not allow the arrival of anatomically modern humans to be dated in the south. However, using typological arguments and the chronology constructed for the north of the Peninsula, it is unlikely that they were present in this region before 38,080 – 36,680 cal BP (95% probability). This implies a temporal gap of at least 4,490 – 12,740 cal years, although it is unclear whether this is due to taphonomic factors or is a real period of abandonment. This pattern contrasts to northern areas of the Peninsula where the Aurignacian appears at 42,330 – 40,980 cal BP, shortly postdating the start of the Châtelperronian and end of the Mousterian. It is hoped that the chronology produced will warn against the use of radiocarbon dates produced using poor pre-treatment protocols and has laid the foundations from which a more accurate and more precise chronology can be built in the future.

In this research, the relationship of climatic changes between 130k to 28k years BP to concurrent morphological variations in Neanderthals was tested. Traditional anthropological studies attribute robust Neanderthal morphological traits as an adaptation to a cold environment. A database of previously completed terrestrial paleoclimatic reconstructions in Europe and the Mediterranean was compiled and used to create a series of GIS-generated timeslice maps. Regional climatic conditions were then related to changes in Neanderthal appearances, morphology and disappearances as evident in the archaeological record. To establish climatic conditions, existing studies were compiled from two regions: Europe and the Mediterranean. The European data are based on pollen assemblage sequences from terrestrial lacustrine cores. The Mediterranean data are based on established ƒÔ18O/16O and ƒÔ13C/12C maximum and minimum events recorded in speleothems. The GIS perspective allows these changes to be viewed at significant time to better correlate regional climatic changes with known Neanderthal morphological variation and to extend the investigation both temporally, including Stage 4 and Stage 5e, and geographically, into the Mediterranean from similarly completed studies.

This dissertation comprises three articles that propose explanations for the eventual extinction of Neanderthals in Europe after a period of several thousand years of coexistence with anatomically modern humans (AMH). I propose that bioenergetic differences between Neanderthals and AMH favored the persistence of AMH. This difference in energetic efficiency was augmented by any behavior that was advantageous to AMH. Consequently, such behaviors directly impacted the rate of Neanderthal extinction. The first article proposes a mathematical model that reconstructs Neanderthal and AMH energetic budgets to predict how using fire for cooking might have affected the success of each species. I first use the model to establish that energetic differences alone result in Neanderthal extinction when Neanderthals and AMH occupy the same landscape. I then establish that cooking meat increases its caloric value, and incorporate that parameter into the model. The outcome indicates that differential fire use by Neanderthals and AMH significantly affects the rate of Neanderthal extinction. The second article analyzes the evidence for marrow and bone grease extraction from reindeer carcasses by Neanderthals and AMH during cold climate phases. I analyze two assemblages produced by Neanderthals and three produced by AMH to determine how each group exploited these crucial nutritional resources. Results indicate that marrow processing intensity correlates with site function rather than with human species while bone grease may have been more intensively processed by AMH. In the third article, I integrate these studies within a new theoretical framework combining self-organizing criticality (SOC) and resilience thinking (RT). I explore Neanderthal extinction across multiple scales. SOC explores how interactions at the scale of the individual can combine to cause events such as an extinction. RT provides a systems-level framework for understanding how patterns of change among Neanderthals, AMH, prey populations, and the landscapes they inhabit may lead to instability and collapse. I identify the arrival of AMH into a landscape occupied by Neanderthals as a threshold point that set the process of Neanderthal demise in motion. I then use SOC and RT together to explain Neanderthal extinction as a slow and patchy process, rather than a sudden extinction.

In the present body of work two primary subjects have been addressed, both individually and in their correspondence, namely 1) the potential for Neanderthals to have contributed to the Modern Human population, and 2) the genetic diversity of one of the most prehistorically impactful human popuations, the Armenians. The first subject is addressed by assessing 1000 mutations in 384 current humans, particularly for those mutations which appear to derive from the Neanderthal lineage. Additionally, the validity of the Neanderthal sequences themselves is evaluated through alignment analysis of fragementary DNA derived from the Vindija Cave sample. Armenian genetic diversity is analyzed through the autosomal short tandem repeats, y-chromsome single nucleotide polymorphisms, and y-chromosome short tandem repeats. The diversity found indicates that Armenians are a diverse group which has been genetically influenced by the various migrations and invasions which have entered their historic lands. Further, we find evidence that Armenians may be closely associated with the peopling of Europe.

Development of methods for the characterization and retrieval of damaged DNA from ancient biological material Over course of the last decade, the field of ancient DNA has been transformed by the advent of highthroughput sequencing. In specimens with exceptional DNA preservation, this allowed whole nuclear genomes of extinct organisms to be sequenced and analyzed. To deal with material with suboptimal DNA preservation and high levels of external modern DNA contamination as is common in intensively handled museum specimens, significant challenges remain. In this thesis I developed laboratory and in silico methods to make highly contaminated biological material amenable to genetic research and explore the structure and decay mechanisms of ancient DNA. Chapter 1 illustrates the development of a library preparation method for high-throughput sequencing that selects for DNA molecules containing uracils, a damaged base typically found in ancent DNA, in order to enrich authentic ancient molecules against a background of modern contamination. The method was applied to Neanderthal samples from Gibraltar demonstrating its suitability for recovering DNA sequences from material that shows very poor DNA preservation and that is particularly strongly contaminated with modern human DNA. Chapter 2 describes a new method to reconstruct the native double-stranded DNA molecules and overhang structures in DNA isolated from a Neanderthal specimen by combining deep sequencing of low-input single-stranded DNA libraries with in silico sequence matching. I analyzed patterns of nucleotide substitutions and base composition separately in the different structures found and showed also that the method can be applied to modern sources of fragmented DNA, specifically to cell-free DNA isolated from present-day blood samples.

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