[Truncated abstract] Aspects of the biology of the commercial sea cucumber Holothuria whitmaei were investigated at Coral Bay, Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. The study was partitioned into several components: i) spatial distribution, ii) temporal changes in behaviour and iii) reproduction biology. The spatial distribution of H. whitmaei at Coral Bay was typical of that reported in the literature. H. whitmaei had distinct preferences for outer reef habitats, including the outer reef flat and reef slope. However, the distribution of H. whitmaei within these habitats was heterogeneous, or, aggregated within certain micro-habitat zones - predominantly at the leading edge of the reef flat, perpendicular to the prevailing current. Two potential biological advantages of this distribution were hypothesised: i), that species aggregation enhances prospects for gamete fertilisation, a process which may be impeded under typical densities, and ii), large deposits of detrital matter, an important food source for holothurians, may accumulate within these zones. ... A striking feature of the reproduction biology of this species was the potential for specimens to mature asynchronously. It was hypothesised that this phenomenon may be a reflection of isolated individuals located too far from conspecifics to receive pheromone signals; cues which are known to entrain synchronous gonad development in some holothurians. Hence, it was proposed that aggregations of H. whitmaei may be important to the maintenance of population recruitment, given that animals at the periphery of species concentrations may have relatively little chance of achieving fertilisation. ... Given that H. whitmaei were observed to maintain highly specific patterns of distribution, this may have significant ramifications for trophic level cascades in the outer reef zone, particularly where this species is present in higher densities (i.e. >100 ind. ha-1). The findings of this study, apart from highlighting the spatial and temporal biological attributes which may facilitate feeding and reproductive success, also emphasised the importance of biological knowledge to the management of sea cucumber fisheries. The study highlighted the need for further research to ascertain both the importance of species aggregations to population recruitment, and of the actual densities required to achieve high rates of gamete fertilisation. Such knowledge may help ultimately to identify suitable habitats for inclusion in marine protected areas.

The conservation status of the widely-distributed whale shark Rhincodon typus is presently listed as 'Indeterminate - Data Deficient'. One of the main hindrances to obtaining biological data on whale sharks that is relevant to determining its 'conservation status' is that this species has rarely been recorded as occurring in sufficient numbers to obtain quantitative data. However, R. typus does form aggregations at Ningaloo Marine Park (NMP), Western Australia, annually between March and June. This has enabled studies to be made of aspects of the biology of R. typus and of the possible impacts of the ecotourism industry on this species. Using a position provided on vessels involved with the whale shark ecotourism industry at NMP, R. typus was observed on 360 separate occasions in 1995, 1996 and 1997, and it was possible to sex 90.3% of these sharks. The majority of the sexed sharks (84.6%) were male and ranged in length from 4 to 12 m, with a mean of 7.4 m, while the females ranged in length from 4.5 to 8.5 m, with a mean of 6.2 m. The size and degree of abrasion of the claspers was used as an indicator of whether or not a male shark had mated. Using such criteria, it was estimated that male whale sharks start to mature at ca 8 m and that ca 50% are mature by the time they reach 8.6m. Observations suggested that R. typus feeds by using both suction and flow-through mechanisms. The prey that were observed being ingested included coral spawn, tropical krill, mysids and small jellyfish. The contents of a faecal sample contained parts of the exoskeleton of copepods and the scales of small fishes. The degree of mouth distension, which is assumed to be related to feeding activity, was low during most observation periods. Photographs of the scars and natural patterning on the skin of individual sharks were used to construct a photographic library for subsequent identification of these sharks. The features used for identifying individual sharks were chosen because they were considered likely to remain for a protracted period. The Whale Shark Photo -identification Library that was produced provides details on the characteristic features of 52 R. typus that were present at NMP. Six individuals were recorded at NMP in both 1995 and 1996, four in both 1996 and 1997, and one in both 1995 and 1997. No identified whale sharks were recorded in all three years. Rhincodon typus was distributed widely throughout NMP, with most boat and aerial sightings lying within 1 - 2 Ism of the reef crest between Tantabiddi and Turquoise Bay. Rhincodon typus was typically sighted in water depths of 10 to 30 m. The sharks were predominantly travelling parallel to Ningaloo Reef, with significantly more moving in a northward than southward direction. Acoustic tracking of R. typus in 1997 suggested that this species remains within NMP for extended periods and is at the surface for ca 17% of daylight hours. The number and species of fauna observed to be associated with R. typus were recorded, and a new species of copepod, Pandarus sp. nov., which lives on the skin of R. typus has been described. Golden trevally (Gnathanodon speciosus), miscellaneous trevally (Carangid sp.), remora (Remora sp.) and slender suckerfish (Echeneis naucrates) were common. The prevalence of Pandarus sp. nov. was inversely proportional to the number of Remora sp. and E. mucrates in 1996, while the opposite was true in 1997, suggesting that Pandarus sp. nov. were preyed on by these diskfish. Rhincodon typus is the basis of the ecotourism industry that operates within NMP each year. While there was considerable variation in the number of tour vessels searching for whale sharks at NMP each year, the greatest mean number of vessels operating per week in successive whale shark seasons were 6.7 during Week 8 (April 19 - 25) of 1995, 6.1 during Week 7 (April 12 - 18) of 1996 and 6.9 during Week 8 (April 19 - 25) of 1997. The greatest mean numbers of whale sharks sighted per week in each year were 5.1 during Week 14 (May 31 - June 6) of 1995,4.2 during Week 6 (April 5 - 11) of 1996 and 4.1 during Week 8 (April 19 - 25) of 1997. Tourists, who were permitted to swim alongside R. tyus, interacted with sharks for a mean period of 19.3 rnin in 1995, 14.2 min in 1996 and 9.5 rnin in 1997. The reduction in the duration of interaction in three successive years suggests that, over time, R. typus may have become slightly less tolerant of the ecotourism industry at NMP. The mean minimum distance between vessel and shark during each interaction was 20.7 m in 1995, 21.3 m in 1996 and 31.0 m in 1997. The mean minimum distance between tourist and shark during each interaction was 1.5 m in 1995, 2.05 m in 1996, and 2.1 m in 1997. The mean minimum distance of vessel and tourist from R. typus during each individual interaction decreased as the duration of the interaction increased. Therefore, both R. typus and this industry must be carefully monitored to ensure that the impacts of humans are kept to a minimum and thereby ensure that whale sharks return to NMP each year. An ethology of whale shark behaviours, which included banking, porpoising, diving and eye-rolling, was produced in an attempt to determine whether there is evidence that the ecotourism industry has a negative impact on R. opus at NMP. The frequency of behavioural change was greatest in the first 0 - 5 min of an observation. Eye-rolling by R. typus was recorded as a reaction to flash-photography, while banking was often recorded when SCUBA was used and/or tourists swam beneath the head of the shark. The swimming speed of R. typus at NMP was rarely too fast for tourists to maintain proximity to the sharks. Several sharks possessed both recent and healed scars, which were probably inflicted by vessel contact. The recent wounds indicate that vessels had caused injuries to R. typus within NMP. These individuals tended to display a higher frequency of avoidance behaviours and reduced interaction times. Recommendations are provided to the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management which are aimed at reducing the potential deleterious effects of the ecotourism industry on the whale sharks at NMP.

Over the past few decades, the development of coastal areas has become an increasingly contested arena. For many years, tourism in remote coastal areas has been the preserve of a few intrepid campers, surfers and recreational fishers. More recently, however, numbers along parts of the coast have increased rapidly, not only contributing to an expansion of camping activity, but also pressure for more commercially oriented tourism. This has contributed to concerns about the environmental sustainability of tourism in remote coastal areas. Governments have increasingly been faced with the challenge of balancing ecological concerns with the pursuit of economic development. Adding to the complexity are the differing needs and demands of various segments of the tourism market all looking to enjoy particular places. Balancing the demands of campers, backpackers, package tourists and others in a single place is often wrought with conflict. This study explores some of these issues in a remote coastal area in Western Australia. The Ningaloo coast has evolved from a difficult to reach destination used by a small number of campers, to one of Western Australia's most popular tourist destinations in just two decades. The thesis examines the factors underlying the growth and change of tourism in the region, tracing its evolution from a few small rudimentary campsites to proposals for large scale resort developments. Of particular interest to this thesis is how planning and policy processes aim to address developmental pressures and resource use/planning conflicts. Additionally, this study provides an insight into the issues facing the informal, long term camper as the traditional segment of Ningaloo's tourism market. It examines how current planning and policy for the Ningaloo coastline affects this group by reshaping traditional tourism use of the area.

Attaining the ‘appropriate’ balance between human use of national parks and their protection is a topic of considerable public, scientific and business interest and is thus an important focus for research. An increasingly affluent and mobile western society has made tourism the world’s largest industry; an industry with a significant reliance on the attractions of protected areas such as national parks and their wildlife. Regional communities have benefited from protected areas through local tourism expenditure and government recognition of the economic and social values realized from protected areas. High levels of visitation, and the management of this human use require effective management. But tensions arise when park managers invoke policies and management prescriptions to mitigate the adverse affects of human use. These actions and the way they are implemented can have an alienating impact on local communities, particularly those with a direct business dependency on park tourism. This thesis explores the notion that truly sustainable management of national parks can only be achieved if park managers and communities living adjacent to parks work together in a partnership to meet each other’s needs and through this process, foster the long-term environmental, social and economic benefits that can be derived from these parks. This thesis documents how a local community perceives its park managers and thereby the impact that park management has on local communities. It then seeks to identify the opportunities for park managers and communities to improve the way they view each other and the skills, attitudes and approaches necessary to create the environment for a sustainable relationship and can deliver sustainable outcomes for both parties. / Three methods were employed to progress this research; an extensive review of literature and theory on relevant aspects of the people and parks relationship; the use of a case study of communities adjacent to parks on the Ningaloo Coast; and, qualitative and quantitative surveys to inform those case studies. A resident perception survey of the Exmouth and Coral Bay communities was conducted in August 2005. At the same time key stakeholder representatives were interviewed. Secondary quantitative data on the areas economy and demographics was also collected to triangulate aspects of the primary data. The Ningaloo coast community’s perception of park management has been adversely affected by a recent (2004) management planning process for Ningaloo Marine Park that culminated in significant constraints being placed on recreational fishing access. Both the planning process and the decision have been the focus of community anger. Currently the levels of trust and respect within the community for the park agency and its management performance are low. Despite evidence that the parks of the Ningaloo coast make important social and economic contributions to the local communities of this area, the local community holds negative perceptions of the social and economic impacts of park management, and are influenced strongly by the local community’s attitudes, perceptions and feelings towards the park agency. The park agency’s inability to consult, involve and communicate with the local community (to the satisfaction of the local community) contributes to these attitudes, feelings and perceptions. / Key findings include; the prevailing norms and belief systems within the park agency reinforce the classic managerial paradigm; park management fails to accommodate broader social and economic measures, which diminishes trust and undermines attempts to foster community involvement and stewardship; ineffectual leadership, poor communication and outmoded approaches to planning and community engagement, local apathy to involvement in park planning and a lack of community education in regard to the promotion of park values, programs and activities compound this situation. The Ningaloo coast has the potential to provide an exceptionally bright future for its local communities, based largely on the inherent natural and cultural values of Ningaloo Marine Park, Cape Range National Park and other associated reserves. Whether the potential to develop community stewardship of the parks of the Ningaloo coast is fully met depends largely on the willingness of park management to relinquish some of its power, establish a suitable governance model in order to work collaboratively with the community and communicate effectively with it in order to achieve sustainable futures for both the park and the community.