Uma das abelhas solitárias sugeridas para programas de polinização controlada foi Centris analis, pela constância e abundância no Brasil. Estudos mostraram a importância de C. analis na polinização de algumas culturas agrícolas, e vários trabalhos trazem informações a respeito da sua biologia. No entanto, ainda faltam informações a respeito de fatores capazes de aumentar ou diminuir a população de C. analis. Assim ninhos-armadilha confeccionados com cartolina foram oferecidos no campus da Universidade de São Paulo Ribeirão Preto, com dimensões de 0,6cm de diâmetro e em quatro comprimentos diferentes (6, 7, 8 e 9cm), de outubro de 2010 a setembro de 2012. Resultando em 500 ninhos de onde emergiram 369 fêmeas e 562 machos de C. analis, a mortalidade ocorreu em decorrência dos parasitas Leucospis sp. (100), Coelioxys sp. (55), Anthrax sp (3), por causa de fungos (107) e por causas desconhecidas (100). Ninhos-armadilha de 6 e 7cm apresentaram até quatro células, já os ninhos de 8 e 9cm apresentaram até seis células, sendo os ninhos de 8cm os mais utilizados. A razão sexual apresentou-se desviada para machos e os resultados indicam que o comprimento dos ninhos-armadilha não foi capaz de influenciar a razão sexual dessa abelha. Fêmeas de C. analis que nidificaram entre outubro de 2010 a abril de 2012 foram monitoradas (n=28) quanto ao seu comportamento na área; a atividade delas variou de 6 a 24 dias. Cinco fêmeas apresentaram comportamento considerado diferente do padrão e foram coletadas para dissecção, apresentando uma larva parasitoide em seu abdômen. Três delas fizeram depósitos adicionais de óleo em ninhos terminados dias antes, e normalmente não recebem mais materiais; as outras duas fêmeas foram coletadas após fazerem um falso fechamento, quando fecham a entrada do ninho-armadilha sem construir células de cria nele. As cinco fêmeas construíram ninhos convencionais nos primeiros dias de monitoramento, mas cessaram a construção de ninhos com células de cria e passaram a realizar os comportamentos atípicos. Esses comportamentos sugerem que as fêmeas tornam-se estéreis conforme a larva parasitoide cresce, primeiramente pela perda do espaço para transportar néctar para o ninho, e depois pela perda dos órgãos internos. Antes de morrer várias C. analis, machos e fêmeas, ocultaram-se dentro dos ninhos-armadilha, possivelmente por influência do parasitoide. C. analis encontradas mortas tem sido recolhidas de janeiro de 2008 a setembro de 2012, totalizando 186 abelhas mortas, de onde emergiram 113 conopideos adultos, pertencentes a oito espécies. A maioria foi encontrada nos três primeiros meses do ano, período de maior atividade dos hospedeiros. Assim, conclui-se que somente o comprimento dos ninhos-armadilhas utilizados não é capaz de influenciar a razão sexual da prole; as mortes nos ninhos ocorre principalmente pelos ataques de Leucospis sp., por fungos ou por causas desconhecidas, e um importante inimigo natural dos adultos são os conopideos. / One of the solitary bees suggested to programs of controlled pollination was Centris analis, because of its constancy and abundance in Brazil. Several studies have shown the importance of C. analis in the pollination of some crops, and some papers brought information on the biology of this species. However, it still lacks information about factors that can increase or decrease C. analis population. Hence trap-nests made of black cardboard were offered in the campus of Universidade de São Paulo Ribeirão Preto from October of 2010 to September of 2012. The trap-nests measured 0.6cm in internal diameter and 6, 7, 8 and 9cm in length. Five hundred nests were obtained during the study period. From these nests emerged 369 females and 562 males of C. analis, and the immature mortality occurred due the parasites Leucospis sp. (100), Coelioxys sp. (55), Anthrax sp. (3), probably fungi (107) and unknown causes (100). Trap-nests with 6 and 7cm had up to four cells, and nests with 8 and 9cm had up to six cells, the most used length of trap-nest was 8cm. Sex ratio was male biased, and it seems that the trap-nests lengths did not influence the sex ratio of this bee. Twenty-eight females of C. analis were monitored during their nesting activities that occurred from October 2010 to April 2012. These females worked in the trap-nests from 6 to 24 days. Five females showing behavior considered different from normal pattern had a parasitoid larva inside their abdomen. Three of them made additional deposits of oil on nests finished days before, which usually dont receive more materials; the other two females were collected after making a fake nest plug, when they close the nest entrance without building brood cells in it. The five females built normal nests during the first days of monitoring, but stopped building nests with brood cells and started to make behaviors considered as atypical. These behaviors suggest that females become sterile as the parasitoid larva grows, first because the loss of space to carry nectar to the nest, and later because the loss of internal organs. Before dying many C. analis, males and females, concealed themselves inside trap-nests, possibly by influence of the parasitoid. The dead bees found inside trap-nests have been collected from January 2008 to September 2012, totaling 186 bees, from where emerged 113 adult conopids, belonging to eight species. Most of them were found in the three first months of the year, period of the hosts higher activity. Therefore, the conclusion is that the lengths of trap-nests alone do not influence the brood sex ratio; mortality in nests occurred mainly because of Leucospis sp. attacks, fungi or unknown causes, and an important natural enemy of the adults C. analis are the conopids.

Over the last several decades, the use of solitary bees as an alternative to honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) for pollination of commercial crops has increased, in part as a response to ongoing problems faced by commercial honey bee populations. Two solitary bee species have exhibited great commercial potential: the blue orchard bee, Osmia lignaria Say, and the alfalfa leafcutting bee, Megachile rotundata Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). However, growth of O. lignaria and M. rotundata populations is limited in commercial systems, mainly due to low establishment of females at provided nesting sites, possibly due to mortality, dispersal, or other causes. Rough handling of pre-emergent bees may possibly contribute to post-emergence dispersal in O. lignaria. The current work addressed this hypothesis by using shaking as a proxy for rough handling. However, shaken bees did not establish fewer nests than unshaken bees. Therefore, commercial fruit growers using O. lignaria as pollinators should be able to remove cocoons from their nests as part of their management plan, without fear of increasing bee dispersal. When searching for a nest site, M. rotundata females are known to be attracted to previously used nest materials. The current work verified the attraction of M. rotundata females to old conspecific nests. It also sought to determine which nest components were most attractive to females. It was found that all components were equally attractive. It may be useful to establish these species' learning abilities in a laboratory setting. The current work attempted to design a conditioning protocol for solitary bees. Initially, a method utilizing the proboscis extension reflex was sought. However, O. lignaria and M. rotundata did not reflexively extend their proboscises upon antennal stimulation with sucrose solution. Therefore, another method of conditioning was implemented. Bees were conditioned to respond to floral odors in a feeding bioassay. Results are compared for both species, as well as for males and females. The research completed for this dissertation may provide helpful information for commercial managers of solitary bees seeking to decrease both bee dispersal and the incidence of disease and parasites.

Although nest reuse is most commonly associated with costs such as nest instability and increased ectoparasite loads,contrary evidence supports the possibility that nest reuse might provide an adaptive function in the form of time and energy savings. The Cave Swallow (Petrochelidon fulva), which nests under bridges and culverts in east-central Texas, chooses predominately to reuse nests when old nests are available. I conducted a field experiment involving bridge pairs and single bridges, in which I applied a treatment of nest removal to one bridge of each pair and one half of each single bridge in order to test whether control bridges and nests exhibited increased productivity from the availability of old nests. I found that a higher percentage of young fledged from control bridges and more fledged per clutch from control bridges. Small sample sizes diminished the ability to detect differences within the single bridge experiment. Results from this research support the time-energy savings concept and may be reconciled with conflicting research through fundamental differences between studies in immunity to ectoparasites, infestation type, and nest microclimate.

Coloniality and nest defence were examined in black brant <i>Branta bernicla nigricans</i> and lesser snow geese Chen caerulescens caerulescens. Increased nest density had no effect on nest survival, egg survival, or likelihood of partial clutch predation in snow geese. In brant, nest survival declined as nest density increased in 1992 and with increased distance from shore in 1993. Brant with conspecific nearest neighbours were less likely to suffer partial clutch predation in 1993, but not in 1992. Egg survival in brant increased with nest density in 1993, but decreased as density increased in 1992, however, the decrease occurred only in nests with three or four eggs. Nesting at high densities, in central positions, or far from shorelines commonly travelled by glaucous gulls <i>Larurs hyperboreus</i> and parasitic jaegers <i>Stercorarius parasiticus</i>, the primary egg predators in this study, did not provide geese with a nest or egg survival advantage because effects were lacking in snow geese and were inconsistent and contradictory in brant. Female snow geese had very high nest attendance and both sexes had high territory attendance so snow goose nests were rarely unattended during incubation. Brant had lower nest attendance than snow geese, and due to a lack food near their nests, brant left their territories to feed resulting in lower territory attendance as well. Although male brant were capable of defending the nest from avian predators and usually remained on their territories when females were absent, males were less effective defenders than incubating females. Increased vigilance and decreased resting by female brant as incubation progressed provided support for the prediction, from parental investment theory, that nest guarding effort would increase with offspring age, but there were no changes in male brant or in snow geese. However, declining nest and territory attendance by female brant and males of both species contradicted predictions from parental investment theory but were consistent with an increased need to forage as nutrient reserves declined through incubation as expected due to energetic constraints.

Bird¡¦s nest is the saliva from the Colloclia that have a lot of mucin and sialic acid. However the sialic acid is an important intermediate of influenza virus infection. In 2006, Guo et al was confirmed the Inhibitory effect of bird¡¦s nest extract on influenza virus infection. But the anti-virus component has not been isolated and purified. First, the bird's nest used in this study was proved to be a pure bird¡¦s nest by SDS-PAGE, sialic acid content and protein content. Qualification analysis by SDS-PAGE showed sample possessed three bands at about 50 kDa, 100 kDa and 150 kDa, by Warren assay showed sample possessed a sialic acid content about 10% of dry weight, by Kjeldahl method showed sample possessed a protein content about 50% of dry weight, and by fluorescence analysis in 365 nm showed sample emitted a blue-white light. According to the criteria on previous studies, the sample was considered to be a real and pure bird¡¦s nest. Subsequently, the sample was applied to pronase digestion and then separated by Bio-gel P2 for size exclusion chromatography. All fractions were performed carbohydrate analysis including sialic acid. In lectin blotting, Maackia amurensis agglutinin (MAA) lectin can interact with the fraction that suggest the structure of sialic acid is sialic acid-2,3 galactose in bird¡¦s nest. And carbohydrate membrane array to demonstrate the influenza virus of H5N1 and H1N1 can bind the fractions that suggest the antivirus effect of bird¡¦s nest. These fractions will be further analyzed by neutralization assay to study their antivirus effects in vitro.

The endangered willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) breeds in mountain meadows in the Sierra Nevada, which have been intensively modified, especially reducing meadow wetness, which favors easy access for mammalian predators to reach nesting areas in the meadow interior. High nest predation frequency is one of the main factors for willow flycatcher and other passerines? populations decline. I conducted trapping in wet and dry areas on 10 meadows in May?August of 2007 and 2008 to identify the assemblage of potential mammalian nest predators. I compared the predator activity between wet and dry areas of the meadows and determined the relationship between predator activity with vegetation and hydrology of the meadows. In 2008, I used radio-telemetry on deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and yellow-pine chipmunks (Tamias amoenus) to determine their movement patterns across wet and dry areas, and between forest and meadow. My results showed that chipmunks? and squirrels? activity was restricted almost to dry areas. The activity of yellow-pine chipmunks was 96% and 97% higher in dry versus wet areas in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Voles, mice, and shrews were active in both site types. Voles (Microtus spp.) and shrews (Sorex spp.) were in general more active in wet areas versus dry areas in 2007. Deer mice were equally active in both site types in 2007 and more active in wet areas in 2008. Between years, predators were 68% more active in wet areas in 2007 compared to 2008, and similarly 52% more active in dry areas. Radio-tagged deer mice used the forest and the meadow and were more common in dry areas, whereas yellowpine chipmunks used more the forest than the meadows and were active only in dry areas. Passerines nesting in drier areas are exposed to a larger assemblage of potential predators and are more likely to be predated. My results suggest that increasing the proportion of inundated areas in the meadows would help reduce predator activity (especially chipmunks and squirrels) and consequently nest predation, helping increase flycatcher numbers. In addition, wetter conditions will favor an increment in food availability for flycatchers and an increment in willow cover, which consequently will provide more nesting substrate and will help increase nest concealment.

Although nest reuse is most commonly associated with costs such as nest instability and increased ectoparasite loads,contrary evidence supports the possibility that nest reuse might provide an adaptive function in the form of time and energy savings. The Cave Swallow (Petrochelidon fulva), which nests under bridges and culverts in east-central Texas, chooses predominately to reuse nests when old nests are available. I conducted a field experiment involving bridge pairs and single bridges, in which I applied a treatment of nest removal to one bridge of each pair and one half of each single bridge in order to test whether control bridges and nests exhibited increased productivity from the availability of old nests. I found that a higher percentage of young fledged from control bridges and more fledged per clutch from control bridges. Small sample sizes diminished the ability to detect differences within the single bridge experiment. Results from this research support the time-energy savings concept and may be reconciled with conflicting research through fundamental differences between studies in immunity to ectoparasites, infestation type, and nest microclimate.

Franklin’s ground squirrels (Poliocitellus franklinii; FGS) are increasingly considered of conservation concern throughout much of their range, yet little is known about this species as compared to their congeners. The main objectives of this thesis were to (1) collate and summarize demographic and life-history data to present an up-to-date account of population characteristics for a FGS population near Delta Marsh, Manitoba, (2) document nest movements wherein female FGS relocate their nests and litter during the energetically demanding lactation period and to investigate proximate factors mediating movements, including intraspecific interaction, ectoparasite burden, and nest habitat associations, and, (3) investigate the influence of ectoparasite infestation on dam and litter attributes. Dams consistently relocated litters during lactation in response to conspecific nest discovery, ectoparasite pressure and habitat type. Relocations may compensate for major costs of ectoparasitism, as beyond the frequency of relocation, only litter sex ratio was influenced by ectoparasite burden in this study. / October 2015

Grassland songbird populations have experienced declines due to habitat loss. In Canada, gas well development continues to fragment and disturb prairie habitat. From 2010-2012, I monitored a total of 374 nests in mixed-grass prairie located in southeastern Alberta. I estimated the probabilities of nesting success relative to gas well infrastructure to test for effects on reproductive success. There was very little effect of well pads on nesting success, while roads had a greater impact. Savannah sparrow and chestnut-collared longspur clutch sizes and fledgling numbers per nest were lower near gas well pads and cattle water sources, suggesting lower quality habitat in these areas. Large-sized predators occurred less in areas with older well pads. Concentrations of new well pads may have greater effects on chestnut-collared longspur reproductive success. Minimizing habitat disturbance surrounding gas well pads, and reducing abundance of roads, should minimize impacts on reproductive success for most grassland songbirds.

Thesis (M.S.)--Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007. / Vita. Appendices: leaves 23-75. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 76-79).