M.Sc.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilmet of the requirement fo rthe Degree of Masters of Public Health. April 2012 / Maternal health services have been receiving increasing attention internationally. The high rates of maternal and infant mortality throughout the world place a demand on health systems to prioritize maternal and child health care services. The constitution of South Africa recognizes reproductive health as a fundamental right (Republic of South Africa, 1995). However, the inability of South Africa to meet the Millennium Development Goals targets for maternal and child health increases the need for more studies to identify the reasons for a consistently high maternal mortality rate. The South African health system is based on district health system model which facilitates the delivery of primary health care and the appropriate referrals and admissions of patients. District hospitals, public and private community health centers and public primary health care clinics provide the first level of care to patients. Normal deliveries should take place at this level. Referrals are made to secondary and tertiary level of care. The maternity ward at Kuruman Hospital in the Northern Cape province of South Africa is overcrowded. There are concerns around the quality of care and over 80% of deliveries are normal, suggesting that they could take place at the primary health care clinics and community health centres in the district.

M.Sc. / This dissertation describes the N1 manganese ore bed at Gloria Mine in the Kalahari Manganese Field, Northern Cape Province. It also compares the ore bed at Gloria Mine with the correlative bed further to the south at Mamatwan Mine. The ore bed at Gloria Mine can be subdivided into ten texturally distinct zones that are laterally consistent throughout the mine lease area. The mineralogy and geochemistry of the various lithostratigraphic zones are described from two drill cores (GL28 and GL24), situated away from any known structural features or unconformities that could have affected the properties of the Ore. The ore in drill core GL28 has a mineralogical composition similar to that of typical Mamatwan-type ore described at Mamatwan Mine with braunite and kutnahorite as the main minerals. However, in drill core GL24 the ore has a very different mineralogical composition although it is texturally and geochemically rather similar to Mamatwan-type ore. The ore is composed of hausmannite, calcite and jacobsite and is apparently related to a post-depositional alteration event that did not effect Mamatwan-type ore in the Mamatwan Mine area. This altered ore is similar in composition to low-grade leastaltered manganese ores in the cores of fault blocks at Wessels and N’Chwaning Mines i.e. the area known for its hydrothermally altered high-grade manganese ores in the northern part of the Kalahari Manganese Field. In addition to the above, the N1 manganese ore bed at Gloria Mine also underwent ferruginisation close to certain joints and normal faults. No obvious alteration could be detected where the ore bed is unconformably overlain by Dwyka diamictite, nor associated with a thrust fault displacing the ore.

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MA (Archaeology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Anthropology and Archaeology / unrestricted

M.Sc. / It is the focus of the study to qualitatively describe and then quantify the mineralogical and geochemical changes associated with the supergene alteration of carbonate-rich braunite lutite (Mamatwan-type ore) immediately below the Kalahari unconformity along the southeastern suboutcrop perimeter of the Hotazel Formation in the Kalahari deposit. It was also the objective of this study to determine the timing and duration of supergene alteration. Samples for polished thin sections were carefully selected from eight representative boreholes to be representative of all the lithostratigraphic zones and ore types. The thin sections were used to study mineralogy by means of reflected light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. X-ray powder diffractometry on representative powder samples were used to study the mineralogy and geochemistry of the samples. Microprobe analyses were also performed on the representative samples. Finally the samples were submitted for 40Ar/39Ar geochronology. In this supergene enrichment zone carbonates are leached (associated with an increase in porosity) and Mn2+/Mn3+ -bearing minerals (kutnahorite, Mn-calcite an braunite) are altered to supergene Mn4+-bearing mineral phases (todorokite and manganomelane) and minor quartz. This process upgrades ore from 38 wt% Mn to ore with more than 40 wt% Mn. Element fluxes, enrichment and depletion of major and trace elements were quantified by mass balance calculations. Na2O, K2O, Sr, Ba, Zn and H2O were enriched, while Mn3O4, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, P, B and CO2 were leached from the ore during supergene alteration. Results of this study suggest that the development of Post African I erosional surface may have taken place 45 Ma ago. The bottom of the weathering profile gives a well-defined peak at ca. 5 Ma that may possible coincide with the development of Post African II erosional surface. The major characteristics of the alteration process of the unaltered Mamatwan-type ore to supergene altered braunite lutite can be summarized as follow: • Leaching of Mn carbonates and Mn2+/Mn3+-oxides. • Formation of Mn4+-oxyhydroxides and quartz. • Decrease in relative density of the ore. • Increase in porosity of the ore. • Leaching of Mn3O4, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, P, B, CO2. • Enrichment of Na2O, K2O, Sr, Ba, Zn, H2O. Chemical weathering processes along the Cenozoic Kalahari unconformity appear to have affected the manganiferous lithologies of the Hotazel Formation from 45 Ma onwards to 5 Ma. The weathering front processes very slowly through the Mn-rich braunite lutite (<10m in 40 Ma; <0.25m/Ma); producing a very uniform and microcrystalline supergene mineral assemblage with distinct characteristics.

M.Sc. / Biofuels have the potential to reduce a country’s dependence on imported oil, to ensure diversity of energy sources, to increase the availability of renewable energy sources and to address global environmental issues. In recognition of the potential benefits of the production and use of biofuels, the Department of Minerals and Energy released the Draft Biofuels Industrial Strategy in December 2006 with the aim to increase the use of biofuels in South Africa to replace 4.5% of conventional transport fuels by 2013. However, there are several barriers that need to be overcome before South Africa can establish a large-scale biofuel industry to achieve the DME’s biofuel target. This includes environmental barriers, such as the availability of land for the cultivation of biofuel feedstocks and potential threats to food security. This study focuses on these environmental barriers and aims to determine the potential for bioethanol production from maize in South Africa to 2013. To this purpose, a bioethanol potential model is developed to simulate the potential for bioethanol production from maize in South Africa between 2008 and 2013. The model incorporates four key elements that all impact on the availability of maize for bioethanol production, namely: maize demand; maize supply; the demand for maize as biomaterial; and the available land area for the cultivation of maize. The study makes further use of the scenario planning method to determine the potential for bioethanol production from maize in South Africa. Four unique bioethanol potential scenarios are designed and simulated within the bioethanol potential model developed for this purpose. Each scenario plays out a different Abstract storyline for the future social, economic and natural environment that will impact on the availability of maize for bioethanol production. The results of the bioethanol potential scenario simulations show that South Africa will be able to produce enough maize to meet the DME’s biofuel target of 1.2 billion liters of bioethanol for all scenarios between 2009 and 2010. From 2011 onwards, the bioethanol potential decreases below the DME’s target value in both the worst case and rapid change scenarios. The study concludes that the production of bioethanol from maize in South Africa will have various social, economic and environmental consequences for the country’s agricultural sector. The depletion of domestic maize supplies will seriously threaten food security and consequently, increase the country’s dependence on maize imports. This will not only affect the country’s maize producing regions, but spread throughout South Africa as the demand for agriculturally productive land for maize production increases. Domestic food security is therefore at risk and South Africa will have to resort to other energy technologies to achieve a sustainable and renewable energy future for road transport.

M.Sc. / An estimated 98% of the iron ore exploited in the world is used in the manufacture of pig iron and steel, which are non-substitutable backbones of modern society. The rapid increase of world steel production over the last few years, driven mainly by economic growth in China, have required an equal increase in iron ore production, from 876.8 Mt in 2006 to 948.1 Mt in 2007. The increased rate of exploitation of iron ores has resulted in a rapid depletion of known high-grade iron ore deposits. This, in turn, has led to a dramatic increase of prices, especially for highly thought-after high-grade lumpy iron ores from BIF-hosted deposits. In the absence of any major new discoveries of high-grade iron ore deposits, mining companies have turned to lower-grade materials to assess their beneficiation potential to expand their production base and beneficiation capacity, in order to satisfy future demand. Within this existing framework, this research project was initiated to assess the beneficiation potential of low-grade lumpy stockpiles and high-grade iron ore fines at Beeshoek Iron Ore Mine, owned by Assmang Ltd. The mine is located 7 km West of Postmasburg, in the Northern Cape Province of South-Africa, and processes currently 5.60 million tons of uncontaminated run-of-mine ore per annum. Crushing, washing, classification and jigging are used to produce 2.12 million tons of (37.8% of ROM) of lumpy iron ore product. The balance (3.48 million tons) is currently not used, but is stockpiled or discarded. This includes 0.90 million tons (16.2% of ROM) of ore-grade fines, 0.86 million tons (15% of ROM) of tailings sludge and 1.74 million tons (31% of ROM) of lumpy low grade material. Both ore-grade fines and low-grade lumpy material are discarded separately; they are currently considered as waste. The low-grade lumpy is stockpiled while the fines are used to fill-in mined-out open pits. The evaluation of the beneficiation potential of these two material streams is the main goal of this study. Representative samples were collected from ore-grade fines and the current stockpile for low-grade lumpy material. Hand sorting and lithological categorization of the lumpy material facilitated petrographic and mineralogical studies using light and scanning electron microscopy, as well as X-ray powder diffraction studies. Major and trace element geochemistry were determined using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and titrimetry (to accurately determine the concentration of iron). Whole rock densities were determined for all lithotypes recognized in the low-grade lumpy material. The grain size distribution was determined for the lumpy materials by actual measurement of the diameter of a representative number of particles, and for fines by sieve analysis. Fines beneficiation tests were conducted using spiral separation and simple classification tests. Washing was used as additional beneficiation method on the fines.

M.A. / With this research, an Environmental Centre for the Northern Cape Province is suggested at Upington as an environmental management initiative. Environmental management aims to create an awareness and a concern for the environment and all its facets. In this way, knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivation and commitment are striven for, so that the environment and its related problems can be identified and solved by the community. Formal teaching cannot do this task by itself. An additional source is suggested. An Environmental Centre can benefit the community if it creates an awareness of the various elements of the environment, their interdependency and the necessity of a healthy environment for the survival of man. It can motivate the community to accept responsibility for the environment, provide the knowlegde and values so that solutions can be found for environmental problems. Upington in the Northern Cape Province has several unique qualities which can justify an Environmental Centre: • an unique climate with many human activities, • the availability of the Orange River's water, • its population composition, • Various economic activities(intensive/extensive farming) • a growing tourist sector, and • a very well developed infrastructure. A questionnaire was used to compile a residents profile to test the Environmental Centre initiative. Residents acknowledged the existence of environmental problems and that it must be addressed. An Environmental Centre with a well developed, co-ordinated and integrated environmental management plan, can be a solution. The way man sees his environment, indicates how he will utilise his environment. Knowledge and education about the environment can lead to citizens that know, understand and protect their environment against every form of deterioration. Environmental adulthood can thus be achieved.

M.A. / Natural phenomenon such as droughts have a definite influence on the availability of water sources, soil profiles and vegetation of an area. Man should adapt his activities, such as farming, to the current climatic elements of the area to ensure his existence. Intermittent rainfall and the occurrence of droughts caused symptoms such as desertification. Desertification has reached an alarming level in South Africa, so much so that the level of environmental degradation in the Northern Cape Province caused great distress. This caused many questions into the activities of man in this area. The problem that arose out of this is, does man cause a negative impact on the environment with his farming activities? The specific area of concern is the Southern Kalahari-dunefield, with its unique ecosystems. This area can be described as an semi-arid desert with very sensitive ecosystems. Any form of interference can cause a long term ecological disruption. This area contains several hidden resources which are optimally used by man and animals to live a decent life. The development of these resources (e.g. water) over the past decades lead to the advantage for all concerned. However, the real danger of over-utilisation and exploitation do exist. Questionnaires were used to gather data concerning stock farming activities in this area. Information was obtained regarding water resources, vegetation cover, endemic animals, type of farming, ground cover and other economic activities such as tourism. Man is an additional determinant who causes an impact on his environment in the Southern Kalahari-dunefield. Although a change can be observed over the past decades in the activities of man to enhance sustainable development, continuous strive to the implementation of new methods to preserve resources in the long term, must be encouraged.

The rock engraving site of Driekopseiland, west of Kimberley in the Northern Cape is distinctively situated on glaciated basement rock in the bed of the Riet River, and has a wealth of over 3500 engravings, preponderantly geometric images. Most other sites in the region have greater proportions of, or are dominated by, animal imagery. In early interpretations, it was often considered that ethnicity was the principal factor in this variabilty. From the 1960s the focus shifted more to establishing a quantative definition of the site, and an emperical understanding of it within the emerging cultural and environmental history of the region.