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Thesis advisor: Evan R. Kantrowitz / Nucleotides, the building blocks for nucleic acids, are essential for cell growth and replication. In E. coli the enzyme responsible for the regulation of pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis is aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase), which catalyzes the committed step in this pathway. ATCase is allosterically inhibited by CTP and UTP in the presence of CTP, the end products of the pyrimidine pathway. ATP, the end product of the purine biosynthetic pathway, acts as an allosteric activator. ATCase undergoes the allosteric transition from the low-activity and low-affinity T state to the high-activity and high-affinity R state upon the binding of the substrates. In this work we were able to trap an intermediate ATCase along the path of the allosteric transition between the T and R states. Both the X-ray crystallography and small-angle X-ray scattering in solution clearly demonstrated that the mutant ATCase (K164E/E239K) exists in an intermediate quaternary structure shifted about one-third toward the canonical R structure from the T structure. The structure of this intermediate ATCase is helping to understand the mechanism of the allosteric transition on a molecular basis. In this work we also discovered that a metal ion, such as Mg2+, was required for the synergistic inhibition by UTP in the presence of CTP. Therefore, the metal ion also had significant influence on how other nucleotides effect the enzyme. A more physiological relevant model was proposed involving the metal ion. To better understand the allosteric transition of ATCase, time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering was utilized to track the conformational changes of the quaternary structure of the enzyme upon reaction with the natural substrates, PALA and nucleotide effectors. The transition rate was increased with an increasing concentration of the natural substrates but became over one order of magnitude slower with addition of PALA. Addition of ATP to the substrates increased the rate of the transition whereas CTP or the combination of CTP and UTP exhibited the opposite effect. In this work we also studied E. coli dihydroorotase (DHOase), which catalyzes the following step of ATCase in the pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway. A virtual high throughput screening system was employed to screen for inhibitors of DHOase, which may become potential anti-proliferation and anti-malarial drug candidates. Upon the discovery of the different conformations of the 100's loop of DHOase when substrate or product bound at the active site, we've genetically incorporated an unnatural fluorescent amino acid to a site on this loop in the hope of obtaining a better understanding of the catalysis that may involve the movement of the 100's loop. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2012. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

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Thesis advisor: Evan R. Kantrowitz / The enzyme aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase) is an enzyme in the pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthetic pathway. It was once an attractive target for anti-proliferation drugs but has since become a teaching model due to kinetic properties such as cooperativity and allostery exhibited by the Escherichia coli form of the enzyme. ATCase from E. coli has been extensively studied over that last 60 years and is the textbook example of allosteric enzymes. Through this past research it is understood that ATCase is allosterically inhibited by CTP, the end product of pyrimidine biosynthesis, and allosterically activated by ATP, the end product of the parallel purine biosynthetic pathway. Part of the work discussed in this dissertation involves further understanding the catalytic properties of ATCase by examining an unregulated trimeric form from Bacillus subtilis, a bacterial ATCase that more closely resembles the mammalian form than E. coli ATCase. Through X-ray crystallography and molecular modeling, the complete catalytic cycle of B. subtilis ATCase was visualized, which provided new insights into the manifestation of properties such as cooperativity and allostery in forms of ATCase that are regulated. Most of the work described in the following chapters involves understanding allostery in E. coli ATCase. The work here progressively builds a new model of allostery through new X-ray structures of ATCase*NTP complexes. Throughout these studies it has been determined that the allosteric site is bigger than previously thought and that metal ions play a significant role in the kinetic response of the enzyme to nucleotide effectors. This work proves that what is known about ATCase regulation is inaccurate and that currently accepted, and taught, models of allostery are wrong. This new model of allostery for E. coli ATCase unifies all old and current data for ATCase regulation, and has clarified many previously unexplainable results. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

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Les cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH) possèdent deux propriétés fondamentales : l'auto-renouvellement et la capacité de se différencier en lignées hématopoïétiques de tout type. Les CSH se maintiennent dans la moelle osseuse et se renouvellent par division asymétrique. En revanche, les divisions symétriques caractérisent les cellules qui s'engagent dans la différenciation. L'environnement pauvre en oxygène de la moelle osseuse favorise la glycolyse anaérobique et l'oxydation des acides gras, préservant, respectivement, la quiescence et les divisions asymétriques. Que l'engagement des CSH vers la différenciation lymphoïde, myéloïde ou érythroïde dépende ou entraîne une reprogrammation métabolique n'est toujours pas connu. En effet, de nombreuses études ont montré que cytokines et contacts cellulaires sont indispensables pour l'engagement des CSH vers une lignée donnée, alors que l'impact potentiel des nutriments et du métabolisme sur ce processus reste très peu étudié. La différenciation est associée à une prolifération qui nécessite des besoins métaboliques accrus pouvant être supportés par diverses sources d'énergie, telles que le glucose, les acides gras, le lactate ou la glutamine. Le glucose et la glutamine sont des précurseurs de l'ATP, des lipides et des nucléotides. Toutefois, leurs contributions relatives aux voies métaboliques contrôlant l'engagement des CSH n'ont pas été évaluées. Pour autant, nos études ainsi que celles menées par d'autres laboratoires ont montré que l'expression du transporteur de glucose Glut1 n'augmente qu'au cours des dernières étapes de la différenciation érythroïde, suggérant l'implication potentiel d'autres nutriments dans la régulation des étapes précoces de l'engagement vers la voie érythroïde. Ainsi, mon travail de thèse a consisté à déterminer si la disponibilité et l'utilisation des nutriments régulent la différenciation des CSH vers la lignée érythroïde. De fait, j'ai montré que le transporteur de glutamine ASCT2 est hautement exprimé dans les CSH et que la répression d'ASCT2 ou le blocage du métabolisme de la glutamine empêche la différenciation érythroïde des CSH, les détournant vers la voie myéloïde, même en présence d'érythropoïétine. Dans ces conditions, nous avons montré que la différenciation érythroïde ne pouvait pas être restaurée par l'ajout d'intermédiaires du cycle de Krebs, alors que qu'elle était dépendante de la biosynthèse de novo de nucléotides. Étonnamment, le 2-désoxyglucose (2-DG), un analogue du glucose inhibant la glycolyse, accélérait l'érythropoïèse. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence in vivo, en condition de stress érythropoïétique, des influences différentes du catabolisme de la glutamine et celui du glucose dans la modulation de l'érythropoïèse. Afin de mieux élucider les mécanismes par lesquels la glutamine module la différenciation érythroïde des CSH, nous avons étudié les voies métaboliques qu'elle emprunte. Des expériences de suivi de la glutamine marquée ont montré que l'entrée de la glutamine dans le cycle de Krebs est requise pour une érythropoïèse efficace. Par contre, nous avons montré que la synthèse de novo des nucléotides était l'étape limitante de la différenciation érythroïde. De plus, nous avons observé que la différenciation érythroïde accélérée en présence du 2-DG était associée à une augmentation importante du niveau des pentoses phosphates, précurseurs des nucléotides. Ainsi, l'utilisation de la voie des pentoses phosphates par le glucose, plutôt que la glycolyse, était essentielle pour l'érythropoïèse. En conclusion, mon travail de thèse a montré que la production de nucléotides via le métabolisme coordonné du glucose et de la glutamine est la condition sine qua non pour l'engagement des CSH vers la lignée érythroïde. / Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) possess two fundamental characteristics; self-renewal capacity and the ability to give rise to all blood cell lineages. Before their commitment to a specific lineage, these cells are maintained in a quiescent state in the bone marrow. Asymmetric division is essential for the maintenance of the stem cell compartment while symmetric division results in HSC differentiation. The hypoxic environment of the bone marrow is conducive to anaerobic glycolysis and fatty acid oxidation, preserving stem cell quiescence and asymmetric division, respectively. However, it is not known whether the commitment of an HSC to a lymphoid, myeloid or erythroid lineage fate, is regulated by a metabolic switch. Indeed, while much research has shown a critical role for cytokines and cell-cell contacts in the commitment of HSCs to distinct hematopoietic lineages, the possibility that nutrient entry and metabolism may contribute to this process was not considered until very recently. Cell differentiation is associated with proliferation resulting in increased metabolic requirements that can be met by energy sources such as glucose, fatty acids, lactate, or glutamine, amongst others. While glucose and glutamine are both precursors for the production of ATP, lipids and nucleotides, their relative contributions to metabolic pathways driving HSC lineage commitment have not been evaluated. Interestingly, we and others previously found that the Glut1 glucose transporter is highly upregulated only during the final mitoses of HSC-driven erythroid differentiation, suggesting that other nutrients may regulate early stages of erythroid lineage commitment. During my PhD, I was interested in determining whether nutrient availability and utilization regulate HSC differentiation to the erythroid lineage. Interestingly, I found that the ASCT2 glutamine transporter is expressed at high levels on HSCs. Downregulation of ASCT2 or blocking glutamine metabolism abrogated erythroid differentiation of HSCs and diverted erythropoietin-signaled HSCs towards a myeloid fate. Under conditions where glutamine utilization was blocked, erythroid differentiation was not restored by directly replenishing the tricarboxylic acid cycle but rather, was dependent on de novo nucleotide biosynthesis. Surprisingly, 2-deoxyglucose, a glucose analogue that inhibits glycolysis, enhanced erythropoiesis. Glutamine and glucose catabolism also differentially modulated erythropoiesis in vivo, under stress conditions. To better elucidate the mechanism(s) via which glutamine supports the erythroid lineage specification of HSCs, we evaluated the metabolic pathways fueled by glutamine. Carbon/nitrogen-labeled glutamine tracing experiments showed that the rate-limiting step in EPO-induced erythroid differentiation is glutamine-dependent de novo nucleotide biosynthesis while glutamine entry into the TCA cycle (anaplerosis) is not required. Furthermore, the accelerated erythroid differentiation in the presence of 2-DG was associated with a striking increase in pentose phosphates, precursors of nucleotides. Notably, the shunting of glucose into the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), rather than glycolysis, was essential for erythropoiesis. In conclusion, my research shows that the coordinated redirection of glucose and glutamine into the production of nucleotides is the sine qua non condition for the erythroid differentiation of HSCs.