This study’s primary focus is on white settlement and Indian dispossession and marginalizatian, the theme being developed in the context of a comprehensive local history A number of sub-themes are developed including the relationship between political power and landholding, the changing role of chiefs in Indian society, the importance of the railway in consolidating economic power, the connection between transportation and changing industrial activity and the significance of land tenure regimes in economic performance. After an introduction and outline history the paper is organized in three parts. The first deals with the institutions which supported settlers and were imposed upon Indians. The four institutions examined are missionary activity as it related to Indians and the political, judicial and educational structures as they affected Indians and whites. The notable characteristic of these institutions is that the services delivered to the two racial groups were markedly different, that Indians never received the benefit of their support. The second section considers the critical question of Indian access to resources, the conditions under which reserves were assigned and then repeatedly altered, and the question of aboriginal rights to the land The discrepancy in the terms in which whites and Indians could claim land and the insecurity of tenure of Indians is documented. The third section considers economic sectors: hunting, fishing and gathering, mining, stockraising and agriculture. In the latter two industries, pursued by both Indians and whites, the two communities are juxtaposed to observe differences in their conduct of those industries. The critical elements determining different performance are identified as the differing quantities of obtainable land, and the land and water tenure regimes under which the participants operated although other factors such as increasing capitalization, an oppressive Department of Indian affairs, inadequate access to education and health services and restricted rights in the political and judicial spheres were contributing factors. Okanagan society in the pre-World War I era is seen as a racist society, one in which a completely different set of rules existed for each race and in which social distance between races increased over time White settlers succeeded in building a society with all the features of the modern world: well developed transportation and communications, urban centres, supportive social service institutions, and an educated and prosperous population, in short, a harmonious and just society But this development occured at the expense of the Indian Population. As a society they could only be characterized as a dependent, impoverished, diseased and illiterate people, prone to alcohol and appearing to lack in ambition White success was built upon Indian dispossession. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

No abstract included. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

This thesis on some aspects of the community organization method in the expansion of welfare services in the Okanagan Valley, covers the period of five years from 1958 to 1963, during which the writer was resident in Vernon. The thesis is, therefore, by nature a field experiment in observation, with an attempt at a critical analysis of the services secured in the light of accepted methods of community organization. It was a matter of excitement that so many welfare services were secured in that relatively short- space of time, and so many others were explored or initiated; this phenomenon has significance for other areas of the province and, in so far as is known, this type of social reporting has not been carried out elsewhere in British Columbia. A review of the historical background of the Okanagan Valley shows that it is bountifully supplied with the natural elements and resources which made pioneering relatively easy. Fruit growing, lumbering, and, in the early days, trapping, were the main sources of livelihood. The study shows that these have varied to some degree, especially with the phenomenal growth of Tourism, yet the need to develop secondary industries is of prime importance. The social condition of the people reflects the economic, - increasingly the expanded population requires housing, and the old orchards are giving way to new housing subdivisions. An increasingly complex manner of life demands a comparable network of welfare services. This thesis is essentially concerned with how one city In the Okanagan Valley gradually developed a community consciousness toward getting things done by their own efforts. The research method is largely empirical, as the writer was involved in many of the group efforts made by other Vernon citizens, and came away with a great sense of admiration for the degree of sophistication the city achieved. Questionnaires, personal interviews, actual participation and observation, were some of the methods used, and a two year interval has also afforded an opportunity for some retrospection about the validity of the changes which took place. The study finds that, where public welfare-services are unable to fulfil needs, community effort at identifying these unmet needs leads to a richer concept of themselves in groups; they learn to appreciate the peculiar contribution of each other. As Murray Ross believes that the development of true community organization demands "community morale" as much as the ability to identify need, one has searched for ways in which the people of Vernon sought to achieve this morale and self-confidence. Professional involvement in the community is also shown to create an integrated approach to community problems. Better understanding of professional and volunteer function is thus fostered, which in turn creates mutual respect for each other's efforts at solving common problems and filling unmet needs. As communities grow even more complex, it is seen that the contention as made in the September, 1965 brief by the B.C. Association of Social Workers to the Provincial Secretary is justified, that is, that community organisers should be appointed to act as liaison between an advisory council and the body of volunteers, with their professional counterparts at the local level. One could hope for such a professional organizer to serve the needs of Canada's expanding population to the north, thus bringing services to new communities before problems arise, a truly preventive measure. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

The Okanagan Valley is the boundary between the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex of the Omenica Belt to the east and the Intermontane Belt to the west. The Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex consists of greenschist to amphibolite grade paragneiss and large areas of massive, gneissic, and mylonitic granitic rock. The Intermontane Belt consists of tectonically scrambled late Paleozoic to Triassic eugeosynclinal rocks, intruded by large Jurassic plutons and locally by plutons of mid-Cretaceous age. These are overlain by Eocene non-marine volcanic and sedimentary rocks, capped by fanglomerate breccias and gravity slide megabreccias. The thesis area contains all of these elements. In particular, the mid-Jurassic Oliver pluton is composed of three separate intrusive phases. The oldest phase is a heterogeneous biotite-hornblende diorite, which was intruded by the most extensive phase: a porphyritic biotite granite. The youngest phase is a garnet-muscovite granite. The intrusion of this last phase created the porphyritic biotite granite from an originally more mafic, hornblende bearing granodiorite. The mineralogy of the garnet-muscovite granite suggests that it might be of S-type. Several geochemical plots contradict this and suggests it is a highly evolved I-type magma. Previous geochronometry indicates that the tectonic boundary between the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex and the Intermontane Belt separates: 1) gneisses on the east that consistently yield K-Ar dates of 40-60 Ma, typically 51 Ma for hornblende and 48-50 Ma for biotite, from 2) intrusive rocks on the west that yield Jurassic K-Ar and Rb-Sr dates and Eocene volcanic rocks, erupted largely between 53 and 45 Ma. U-Pb dating of zircons indicates the presence of early Jurassic to mid-Jurassic plutons both east (granite of Anarchist Mtn., 160Ma; gneiss of Osoyoos, 201Ma deformed) and west (Similkameen granodiorite, 170Ma; Olalla Syenite, 18O-190Ma; undeformed) of the Okanagan Valley. East of the Okanagan Valley there are also mylonitic gneisses of Cretaceous age (gneiss of Skaha Lake, 105-120Ma; gneissic sill of Vaseaux Lake, 97Ma), as well as metamorphosed and deformed Eocene intrusives (Rhomb Porphyry, 51Ma). The interpretation is thaL although there are Jurassic plutons and early Mesozoic deformation in both the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex and the Intermontane Belt, there are also Cretaceous and Tertiary intrusive bodies within the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex that have been highly deformed in late Cretaceous to early Tertiary time. Regional geochronometry summarized on time versus blocking temperature graphs emphasizes the large (10 km) and rapid (1-4 mm/yr) unroofing needed to bring the gneisses east of the Okanagan Valley to near surface temperatures in Eocene time. Field evidence for a low angle west dipping detachment fault (Okanagan Valley fault) which juxtaposes brittle disrupted Eocene and older rocks against unannealed mylonitic rocks with Eocene K-Ar dates justifies comparison of the Okanagan Metamorphic and Plutonic Complex with other Cordilleran metamorphic core complexes. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

This thesis examines the relationship between water and yield for apples in the Okanagan region of British Columbia. This is accomplished through a model which simulates the water/yield relationship in tree fruits. Two soil types, two rootstocks, and two irrigation systems were included in the simulation. The results of the simulation indicate that Okanagan orchard irrigation water requirements are substantially lower than present irrigation application rates. Using sprinkler irrigation, irrigation requirements for silt-loam soils amounted to 30% of present application rates, while for sand soils 42% of present application rates were required. Trickle irrigation requirements were determined to be 71% of sprinkler requirements for similar yields. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

There are two themes that are explored in this thesis. The first is an examination of the process of acculturation, defined here as the process of learning skills and strategies native to another group. The second is comparative and examines the causes for the relative success that the Portuguese had in learning to accommodate and be accepted in Canada. By the same token the sources of acculturative stress for the Sikhs will be identified. The two groups are comparable along several dimensions such as age, education, skills, knowledge of English on arrival and so on. Learning to be effective in Canada means understanding and acting appropriately in given contexts. The spheres that I have identified as important are the workplace and the community in which they live. The other spheres that come under scrutiny as a result of the spillover of public activities and experiences are the family, and the sphere of religious beliefs and practices. The workplace, I argue, is a central institution wherein acculturation is imperative. Secondly, the establishment of individuals in the community is a crucial factor. While the formation of an ethnic enclave might serve as a support system for newcomers, it also isolates and separates them from others. The Sikh definition of identity is hierarchical, with religion providing an anchorage for all other spheres such as the family, caste, village, and occupation. In sort, individuals did not experience life activities as differentiated or unrelated. Given the contexts of ambivalence and hostility they perceived and/or experienced in Canada, the acquisition of new forms of thought were neither seen as a challenge nor a necessity; but as a threat to their identity. The Portuguese model, on the other hand, recognizes the distinction between public and private lives. To them being "Portuguese" and/or "Catholic" are primarily private matters. Also, by and large they gave importance to individual achievement over corporate identity. To them, acculturation and ethnic identity were complementary modes for the definition of themselves within the Canadian context. / Arts, Faculty of / Sociology, Department of / Graduate

An investigation was carried out in order to evaluate some of the factors which influence the use of dwarf and semi-dwarf apple trees in commercial orchards in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Three determining factors were found to be of prime importance: the planting density of the trees in the orchard, the tree form as determined by the pruning and training system carried out and the nature of the rootstock used. In the Doornberg Orchards at Okanagan Centre where the experiments were conducted, semi-dwarf trees on Malling VII rootstock trained as hedgerows and planted at a high density per acre gave the optimum earliest and total yields and returns. The experiments were carried out from planting time up to the end of the sixth growing season. The variety of apple used in the experiment was Golden Delicious. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Tree fruit farms in the south Okanagan Valley are characterized by a high degree of specialization. Over 95 per cent of the irrigated land of these farms is in orchard. The farms are small in area and few livestock are kept. Depending on their location, the orchards may be classified into three main "types, namely, apple, stone fruit and combination fruit farms. To provide an insight into the structure, production techniques, and problems of the orchardists, 165 farm business records which had been obtained from the growers in the years 1949 and 1950, were studied and analysed. Also an endeavour was made to answer the question, do the majority of the orchards supply full employment and an adequate income for the operators?. The average capital investment on these farms was over $21,000. On each type of farm, orchard land accounted for more than 65 per cent of the total farm investment. Excluding the value of the farm dwelling, machinery and equipment made up the second largest capital investment. Apple farms in the south Okanagan Valley averaged 17 acres in area, of which 15 acres were in orchard; stone fruit farms averaged 11 acres, of which 9 acres were in orchard; and combination fruit farms had an average total acreage of 14 acres, of which approximately 12 acres were in orchard. The average total cash receipts for these years were $7,276 for the apple farmers; $5,551 for the stone fruit farmer; and $6,953 for the combination fruit farmer. On the apple farms 69 per cent of the total cash receipts were derived from the sale of apples; on the stone fruit farms 75 per cent derived from the sale of stone fruits; and on the combination fruit farms, stone fruits provided per cent, and apples 34 per cent of the total cash receipts. Labour was the largest single item of expense on each type of orchard, varying from 49 per cent to 54 per cent of the total current expenses. The average net income on the apple farms was $2,346; on the stone fruit farms, $2,783; and on the combination fruit farms, $2,720. The factors determining the total output of fruit in any one year include the number of trees, their age distribution, the variety of fruit grown, the amount of cultural care, the prevalence of disease and pests, and the weather. Although the year to year production of all fruits in the valley is erratic, the trend in total production has been upward. The average output of apricots for the three year period, 1947-1949, was 110 per cent greater than the average output for the three year period, 1939-1941. Comparing the same periods, the total yield of cherries increased by 110 per cent, peaches by 141 per cent, pears by 89 per cent, and apples by 44 per cent. Since 1930 the average yield per acre of apple, pear, plum and prune trees has shown a steady increase, whereas the yield per acre of apricot, cherry and peach trees has varied widely from year to year. The tree population of the south Okanagan has been steadily increasing, but the relative position of the various kinds of tree fruits has changed. In 1925 apple trees made up 66 per cent of the total number of trees; in 1950 they accounted for 33 per cent of the total tree inventory. On the farms studied, the majority of the apple trees were over 20 years of age. Most of the apricot, peach, plum, prune, and pear trees were less than 15 years of age. On 94 orchards 16 per cent of the apricot, 15 per cent of the cherry, 31 per cent of the peach, 10 per cent of the plum and prune, and 4 per cent of the pears were killed in the winter of 1949-50. Considering acreage trends, the number of non-bearing trees, and the number of trees to be removed, as well as the average yield, it would appear that for the next few years the general trend in south Okanagan Valley apple, apricot, plum, prune, and pear production will be upward, while the trend of peach and cherry production will be downward. In general the domestic market takes the Okanagan stone fruit and pear crop but the apple grower is dependent to a large extent upon the export market. Present deterioration of the apple market presages a trend to further increases in the plantings of stone fruit and pear trees. Volume of production, yield, and the degree of diversification appear to influence the size of labour earnings. The average total amount of labour required to produce an acre of apples was 253 hours, an acre of apricots 469 hours, an acre of cherries 608 hours, an acre of peaches 386 hours, an acre of prunes 222 hours, and an acre of pears 350 hours per annum. Although the labour prior to harvest was spread over many months, the total pre-harvest time was less than that required for harvesting the fruit, except in the cases of peach, apple and pear trees. On studying the influence of yield on labour requirements, it was found that a doubling of the yield per acre of peaches resulted in an increase of the harvesting time required by 57 per cent. For pear trees doubling of the yield increased the harvest requirements by 75 per cent. From an economic and social viewpoint, it is suggested that a desireable farm organization for the area would be the two family farm. Such a unit, under long run yield expectations and 1949 cost-price relationships, would fully employ two men and provide them with labour earnings of over $3,000 per man, yearly. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The study problem was to analyse the characteristics of individuals who reported interest in continuing education from data collected by means of interviews conducted in a survey of rural residents in the North Okanagan. Two hypotheses were tested to ascertain whether or not there were any significant differences between interested respondents and uninterested respondents with respect to socio-psychological characteristics; and whether or not there were any significant differences between interested participants in adult education and interested non-participants. Data from two hundred and thirty-nine household heads were analysed. There were statistically significant differences between interested and uninterested respondents with respect to twelve psycho-social characteristics. Of the characteristics of interested respondents studied there were significant differences between participants and non-participants with respect to four: including, level of schooling, wife's schooling, social participation and level of living. The findings of this study indicated that interest in continuing education was higher for younger respondents, for those with more years of schooling and those whose wives had completed more years of school. Respondents who expressed interest in further education or training had a higher level of living index and a higher income; they were more active in social organizations and in adult education courses; they were more likely to have been born in Canada outside of the survey area than in the North Okanagan district or in other countries. Interest was higher for farm respondents who had more personal contacts with agricultural extension personnel. Interest in continuing education was lower for respondents who were more alienated, and those who had a negative attitude toward change. It was lower also for those who had been unemployed longer in the last three years and those who had spent fewer years in their present occupation. Expressed interest appears to be one of the measurable characteristics which may be expected to affect the future participation of individuals in adult education. The findings of this study indicated that among those respondents who were interested in continuing education or training, those who had participated in adult education courses were more likely to have had more schooling and their wives to have completed more years of school; were more active in social organizations; and had a higher level of living. Age, schooling and wife's schooling are important factors in all studies of adult education participation. The indications of this study are that the kinds of attitudes or abilities which lead a respondent to earn socially approved membership in the community are also related to participation in adult education. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

The study problem was to analyse the characteristics of individuals who reported interest in continuing education from data collected by means of interviews conducted in a survey of rural residents in the North Okanagan. Two hypotheses were tested to ascertain whether or not there were any significant differences between interested respondents and uninterested respondents with respect to socio-psychological characteristics; and whether or not there were any significant differences between interested participants in adult education and interested non-participants. Data from two hundred and thirty-nine household heads were analysed. There were statistically significant differences between interested and uninterested respondents with respect to twelve psycho-social characteristics. Of the characteristics of interested respondents studied there were significant differences between participants and non-participants with respect to four: including, level of schooling, wife's schooling, social participation and level of living. The findings of this study indicated that interest in continuing education was higher for younger respondents, for those with more years of schooling and those whose wives had completed more years of school. Respondents who expressed interest in further education or training had a higher level of living index and a higher income; they were more active in social organizations and in adult education courses; they were more likely to have been born in Canada outside of the survey area than in the North Okanagan district or in other countries. Interest was higher for farm respondents who had more personal contacts with agricultural extension personnel. Interest in continuing education was lower for respondents who were more alienated, and those who had a negative attitude toward change. It was lower also for those who had been unemployed longer in the last three years and those who had spent fewer years in their present occupation. Expressed interest appears to be one of the measurable characteristics which may be expected to affect the future participation of individuals in adult education. The findings of this study indicated that among those respondents who were interested in continuing education or training, those who had participated in adult education courses were more likely to have had more schooling and their wives to have completed more years of school; were more active in social organizations; and had a higher level of living. Age, schooling and wife's schooling are important factors in all studies of adult education participation. The indications of this study are that the kinds of attitudes or abilities which lead a respondent to earn socially approved membership in the community are also related to participation in adult education. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate