This study focuses on determining how Virginia farmers are planning for farm retirement and succession and whether they will be financially prepared for their retirement years. The Virginia farming population is aging, life expectancy is increasing, and Social Security benefits are not a stable source of retirement income presenting challenges for Virginia farmers who are planning to either retire from the family farm or transition it to the next generation. In this study a 59-item survey was sent to 2000 randomly selected Farm Credit agricultural customers. Results from the survey were analyzed using chi-square tests and correlations to determine statistically significant relationships between the variables. The analysis indicates that Virginia farmers planning to retire from the farm face high levels of debt and plan to sell the farm operation. Virginia farmers planning to transition the farm are generating higher profits from the farm operation and their successor has been identified. The majority of Virginia farmers are financially prepared for retirement with Social Security support; however, without supplemental income from Social Security the majority of the Virginia farming population is not financially prepared for retirement. The results indicate necessary action from the private, academic, and public sectors. Financial professionals should offer retirement planning seminars, academia should continue to research the issues, and the government should consider developing a savings plans specifically for the agricultural community that offer tax advantages. / Master of Science

This investigation has for its aim the determination and the evaluation of the vegetational composition in certain farm pastures in Denton County, Texas.

Teacher trainers, supervisors, and teachers ot vocational agriculture have long recognized the weakness in the instruction in farm management and related problems in the high school. Much material is available in this field but relatively little of it is suitable for use in high school classes. There is also a wide variety of procedures in the organization and use of material in this field. In this study, an attempt has been made to attain the following: 1. To determine the nature and content of farm management units now being taught by teachers of agriculture in the high schools. 2. To set up a proposed course outline in farm management for use by teachers in the high school. 3. To organize the desirable technical content of farm management units to be taught by vocational instructors. / M.S.

This study presents estimates of the marginal productivity of the different classes of resources on Extension T. V. A. test demonstration farms in Southwest Virginia. The data were taken from 106 farm records kept by Unit Test Demonstrators in Southwest Virginia during 1951. The records were divided into four type-of-farm groups. These groups were beef brood farm with and without tobacco, and general farms with and without tobacco. The data were aggregated into independent variables of land, labor, machinery and power, livestock and feed crops, and tobacco. Gross income was taken as the dependent variable and production functions of the Cobb-Douglas type were fitted to the different farm types, and marginal value productivities were derived from the coefficients, The marginal value product of each dollar invested in livestock and feed crops was high on each type farm studied. Marginal values were highest ($2.05) for beef brood farms with tobacco and lowest ($1.45) for general farms without tobacco, Furthermore, the coefficients related to livestock and feed crops were significant in all cases. The marginal value product of land was relatively high ($12.75 per acre) on beef brood farms with tobacco and ($16.36 per acre) on beef brood forms without tobacco. The marginal value product of machinery and power was $4.15 on general forms without tobacco and the coefficient was statistically significant in this case. However, estimates were extremely low for other type farms. The marginal productivity of labor on beef brood farms without tobacco seems reasonable, but it was not statistically significant. The same is true of tobacco on general farms. Generally the analysis indicated that: (1) The typical Southwest Virginia former could apparently not profitably expand acreage until present acres used are more fully developed and stocked. (2} The productivity of labor, and thus its earning power, can be increased on most Southwest Virginia forms by additional investments in high producing livestock and feed crops. (3) Investments in livestock and feed crops were paying high returns on most Southwest Virginia forms in 1951 and could be profitably increased. (4) Machinery and power were earning low returns on most Southwest Virginia forms in 1951. / Master of Science

M.S.

The effect of a range of storage temperatures on produce condition was studied. Two or three cultivars or peaches, nectarines, plums, apricots, strawberries, grapes, pears, peppers, one cultivar of blackberries, tomatoes, and cabbages were chosen for the experiment. The storage temperatures (21°C, 15°C, 10°C, 4°C, 0°C) and humidity (about 80% RH) were maintained during the experiment. Observations were made on weight loss, total loss, disease, appearance and visual storage life. Percent weight loss among cultivars was not significantly different (5% level) for most of the produce (two-way factorial arrangement), but date of harvest resulted in a significant difference in percent weight loss of peppers. The range of percent weight loss varied, depending on the type of the produce. Berries lost moisture faster than other fruits. Rate of moisture loss decreased as storage time increased. Beginning at 4°C, for every 5°C rise of temperature, percent weight loss roughly doubled for most of the produce. Total loss in this study was mostly caused by physiological disorders related to ripening and aging in the long storage period and decay caused by fungi on produce stored at high temperatures. The length of storage life was ascertained for cultivars studied. / M.S.

China is preponderantly a nation of farmers; 74.5 percent of her people are engaged in agriculture, and the largest single source of her national income is derived from farming. The agricultural problem is fundamental to her national livelihood. Only through its solution can the level-of-living of the Chinese people be gradually raised. / Master of Science

Master of Science

Sustainability for Virginia dairy farms requires balancing phosphorus (P) imports and exports at the farm-gate level. Balancing P helps prevent further accumulation of P in farm soils through routine applications of manure, which over time contributes to surface water quality issues. The objectives of this research centered on guiding dairy farms in Virginia toward lower, more sustainable P balance, and without adversely impacting profitability. First, the state of P balance had to be determined for a sample of dairy farms, including risk factors for excessively high P balance. Second, a repeated assessment of P balance on those dairy farms sought to determine any key factors of change in P balance between years. Lastly, a small Virginia dairy farm was used as a case farm to evaluate whether or not it could reduce its P balance while maintaining or improving farm profitability. An initial assessment of 58 dairy farms in Virginia showed that 75% of farms could operate with a P balance less than 18.7 kg ha-1. The two risk factors that led to excessively high P surpluses were the use of poultry litter and excessive P imported with purchased feed. The repeated assessment included 30 of the 58 original dairy farms. Increases of 1.0 kg P ha-1 of total P imports and exports were respectively correlated to a mean P balance increase of 0.76 kg ha-1 and a mean P balance decrease of 0.43 kg ha-1, suggesting that changes in P imports affect changes in P balance more than changes in P exports. Reduced poultry litter use was highly correlated to reduced P balance, and increasing cow manure exports also reduced P balance for the farms with the opportunity. As a significant portion of the farms assessed were small (less than 200 milking cows), a case farm of 105 cows on 100 acres was used to explore how farm profitability could be affected as P balance was reduced through additional acres, increased crop production, and with a grazing-based farming strategy. Results from partial budget analysis showed that after expanding the land base from 100 to 150 acres for crop production, the change in potential net return ranged from $-0.90 to $1.26/cwt of milk, with accompanying changes in P balance ranging from -9.0 to -14.7 lbs/ac. The analysis also showed that changes in potential net returns after converting to a grazing-based system ranged from $-2.14 to $1.39/cwt, with greater change in P balance ranging from -9.7 to -17.8 lbs/ac. The most profitable strategy, generally, for this farm seemed to be expanding the land base and growing a cash crop. Phosphorus balance on Virginia dairy farms can be reduced, potentially without negative impacts on farm net return, though challenges remain for farms with limited land or areas with high density of animal agriculture. / Doctor of Philosophy / Phosphorus (P) is a vital nutrient for crops and livestock, but too much of it in soils leads to surface water quality problems. Sustainability for Virginia dairy farms requires balancing P imports and exports at the farm level. This research centered on guiding dairy farms in Virginia toward lower, more sustainable P balance. An initial assessment of 58 dairy farms in Virginia helped establish a zone of operation, a feasible target toward which the 25% of farms with high P balance could aim. Avoiding poultry litter as a fertilizer choice and limiting P imported with purchased feed were both ways in which some of these farms could lower their P balance. A repeated assessment in a second year showed that reductions in P imported were more likely to reduce P balance than were increasing P exports. In this, reducing the use of poultry litter as a fertilizer was again an effective way of lowering P balance. As a significant portion of the farms assessed were small (less than 200 milking cows), a case farm of 105 cows on 100 acres was used to explore how farm profitability could be affected as P balance was reduced through various management changes. Results showed that after expanding the land base by at least 50 acres for additional crop production, P balance could be significantly reduced while maintaining or increasing the potential net return to the farmer, especially if the farmer can ensure a high milk yield grazing-based operation or if they grow a cash crop like corn or soybeans. Overall, the research suggests that P balance on Virginia dairy farms can be reduced, and that these farms can operate more sustainably, though challenges remain for farms with limited land or areas with high density of animal agriculture.

Prior research reveals foodborne pathogens, as well as enteric bacteria, can thrive in agricultural soils. Understanding how macro- and micronutrients, as well as meteorological factors and observational factors, impact pathogen prevalence may promote a better understanding of how pathogens persist in agricultural soils. This study aimed to (i), characterize associations between soil properties (e.g., macro- and micro-nutrient levels) and microbial targets (e.g., S. enterica and L. monocytogenes prevalence, fecal indicator bacteria concentration). Three produce farms in Virginia were selected from different regions (i.e., Blue Ridge Highlands, Piedmont, Coastal Plains). Farms were sampled four times to capture seasonal differences. Five soil samples were collected from 20 plots (25m2) and pooled in equal quantities to form one sample per plot. A total of 240 samples were collected. Listeria and S. enterica samples (25g) were processed using a modified FDA BAM method, while generic Escherichia coli (gEC) and total coliform (TC) samples (5g) were enumerated using Petrifilm. Presumptive Listeria and S. enterica positive samples were confirmed by PCR using a single gene. Bayesian mixed models were used to evaluate associations with each foodborne pathogen and indicator organism with factors of interest. S. enterica prevalence was 4.2% (10/240) in soil samples. Of the ten S. enterica positive samples, nine samples (90%) were from one farm in eastern VA. Listeria spp. prevalence was 10% (24/240) with L.monocytogenes prevalence being 2.5% (6/240). The average gEC and TC concentrations in soil samples were 1.53 (range 0.95-4.01) and 4.21 (range 1.23-7.12) log CFU/g, respectively. Bayesian mixed models revealed that pH impacted prevalence of L. monocytogenes and gEC (MAP=5.48, 95% CI=0.75,345.39, PD=0.98, ROPE=0.01), and (MAP=4.87, 95% CI=2.31,12.22, PD=1.00, ROPE=0.00). There was no evidence of an association between S. enterica prevalence and factors of interest. S. enterica was 11.55 times more likely to be detected on Farm C (where prevalence was highest) compared to other farms (95 % CI= 1.36, 1155.27, PD=0.98, ROPE=0.00). Findings show that while soil nutrient trends differ across all farms, it is difficult to determine the strength of these trends due to strong regional distinctions. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Fresh produce is essential to our food supply but is often a source of foodborne outbreaks since they are often consumed raw and have absence of a "kill step". Importantly, numerous produce outbreaks are often traced back to the production environment with water and soil and common methods of contamination. Additionally, growers are required to identify potential sources of contamination to minimize public health risks. For example, the FDA Produce Safety Rule mandates that growers identify measures that can be taken to prevent contamination from sources including soil and water. Many growers will often test their soils to determine nutrient levels so they can determine appropriate fertilizer amounts to apply to their crops. By understanding how the level of nutrients as well as weather patterns and management factors impact microbial detection, scientists and growers can gain a better understanding of how pathogens persist in agricultural soils. This study looked at sampling soil from three farms in three different regions of Virginia (i.e., Blue Ridge Highlands, Piedmont, and Coastal Plains). Sampling occurred four times across two seasons (fall and summer). Five soil samples were pooled to form one composite sample per plot which totals twenty samples per farm. A total of 240 samples were collected overall for this study. Samples were processed for Listeria and Salmonella (foodborne pathogens) using a modified method from the FDA Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM), while generic Escherichia coli and total coliforms (indicator organisms) were computed using Petrifilm. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was used to confirm the presence of Listeria and Salmonella. Key results from this study revealed that different regions had a significant impact on the presence or absence of Listeria and Salmonella in Virginia agricultural soils. For example, Salmonella was more likely to be detected in the Coastal Plains region, where interestingly, the prevalence was highest (90%; 9/10). The prevalence of Listeria spp. (63%; 15/24) and L. monocytogenes (83%; 5/6 ) were highest in the Piedmont region. Additionally, there was no association between the occurrence of Salmonella and factors of interest (e.g., soil properties, weather factors, observational factors). Additionally, the study found L. monocytogenes was more likely to be detected when soil pH increased. These findings reveal that while soil nutrient, weather, and observational trends differ across all farms, sampling region and time of year create challenges in determining trends due to clear regional differences. This study offers insights into how growers can potentially utilize soil testing (a practice they are already doing) to identify how pathogens may be present in their agricultural soils.