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<p> Estimating the polarization of light has been shown to have merit in a wide variety of applications between UV and LWIR wavelengths. These tasks include target identification, estimation of atmospheric aerosol properties, biomedical and other applications. In all of these applications, polarization sensing has been shown to assist in discrimination ability; however, due to the nature of many phenomena, it is difficult to add polarization sensing everywhere. The goal of this dissertation is to decrease the associated penalties of using polarimetry, and thereby broaden its applicability to other areas. </p><p> First, the class of channeled polarimeter systems is generalized to relate the Fourier domains of applied modulations to the resulting information channels. The quality of reconstruction is maximized by virtue of using linear system manipulations rather than arithmetic derived by hand, while revealing system properties that allow for immediate performance estimation. Besides identifying optimal systems in terms of equally weighted variance (EWV), a way to redistribute the error between all the information channels is presented. The result of this development often leads to superficial changes that can improve signal-to-noise-ration (SNR) by up to a factor of three compared to existing designs in the literature. </p><p> Second, the class of partial Mueller maitrx polarimeters (pMMPs) is inspected in regards to their capacity to match the level of discrimination performance achieved by full systems. The concepts of structured decomposition and the reconstructables matrix are developed to provide insight into Mueller subspace coverage of pMMPs, while yielding a pMMP basis that allows the formation of ten classes of pMMP systems. A method for evaluating such systems while considering a multi-objective optimization of noise resilience and space coverage is provided. An example is presented for which the number of measurements was reduced to half. </p><p> Third, the novel developments intended for channeled and partial systems are combined to form a previously undiscussed class of channeled partial Mueller matrix polarimeters (c-pMMPs). These systems leverage the gained understanding in manipulating the structure of the measurement to design modulations such that the desired pieces of information are mapped into channels with favorable reconstruction characteristics.</p>

<p> Optically resonant nanostructures have been incorporated into a variety of devices used in a number of different fields. In this thesis, we explore optically resonant nanostructures in two forms. First we investigate a relatively new material, gallium implanted silicon (Si:Ga). We cover the fabrication process and experimentally find the optical properties as a function of both dose and wavelength. We then use the properties of this new material to create suspended arrays of Si:Ga nanowires, and determine their optical characteristics. In the second part of this thesis, we use more conventional materials and fabrication procedures to investigate the phase effects of guided mode resonators. We look at the spectral phase effects for a grating coupled silicon-on-insulator based guided mode resonator. We also look the angular phase effects of a surface plasmon polariton based guided mode resonator, comparing experimental results to theory calculated with rigorous coupled wave analysis for both cases. In addition, the guided mode resonance is modeled as a Fano resonance to gain insight into the functional form of the phase. Knowing the phase response of guided mode resonances may allow the creation of guided mode resonance based devices with higher sensitivity than traditional reflectance based devices.</p>

<p> Light possesses no mass but can transfer momentum to matter and thus can exert forces. This thesis explores these optical forces, focusing on two surprising discoveries: optical forces arising from the spin angular momentum of light and beams of light that can pull, as well as push. </p><p> In the first case, we have shown that non-uniform beams of light can exert a force proportional to the curl of the spin angular momentum density. To show this we have developed a framework for understanding optical momentum in terms of experimental parameters. This framework makes clear that the curl of the spin angular momentum density contributes to the optical linear momentum. Surprisingly, we find that this contribution does not lead to spin-dependent optical forces at the electric dipole level. Experimentally, however, we find that spin-dependent optical forces do indeed act on isotropic microspheres in focused circularly-polarized beams of light. Theoretically, we confirm that spin-dependent forces appear at higher order in multipole scattering, which qualitatively explains the experimental results. </p><p> Using the same theoretical framework, we show that beams of light can act as tractor beams that pull illuminated objects upstream against the direction of propagation. We demonstrate this extraordinary effect experimentally with optical conveyor beams. These experiments demonstrate long-range bidirectional transport of colloidal microparticles along propagation invariant beams of light. They show moreover that optical conveyors can move multiple particles simultaneously due to the self-healing properties of these modes of light. Not only do optical conveyors constitute practical realizations of tractor beams, but they also act as stronger traps than conventional optical traps and are less sensitive to particle composition. Axial interference endows optical conveyors with these superb trapping properties, which in turn gives them greater range than conventional optical traps. Our work provides a jumping off point towards subsequent work on long-range optical tractor beams.</p>

<p> A laser diode emits a narrow range of frequencies. However, drifts in frequency occur over time due to many factors like changes in laser temperature, current, mechanical vibrations in the apparatus, etc. These frequency drifts make the laser unsuitable for experiments that require high frequency stability. We have used an atomic transition in rubidium as a frequency reference and used Doppler free saturated spectroscopy to observe the reference peak. We have designed an electronic locking circuit that operates the diode laser at a specific frequency. It keeps the laser at that frequency for a long period of time with very few or no drifts. </p><p> We have constructed and characterized an extended cavity diode laser that costs significantly less than a commercial unit. It is much more compact with performance comparable to that of a commercial unit. It can be used in undergraduate and graduate optics laboratories where commercial units are cost prohibitive. The various components of the set-up are discussed, and the basic principles behind the function and operation of this versatile device are explained. We designed a servo loop filter circuit, which is used to stabilize the frequency of the laser to an atomic reference frequency. We also generated an error signal using a technique similar to the Pound Hall Drever technique and then feedback the error signal in the loop filter circuit. </p>

<p> This thesis contains a discussion of the theoretical background for Fourier spatial filtering and a description of the design and construction of a portable in-class spatial filtering apparatus. A portable, in-class spatial filtering demonstration apparatus was designed and built. This apparatus uses liquid crystal display (LCD) panels from two projectors as the object and filter masks. The blue LCD panel from the first projector serves as the object mask, and the red panel from the second projector serves as the filter mask. The panels were extracted from their projectors and mounted onto aluminum blocks which are held in place by optical component mounts. Images are written to the LCD panels via custom open source software developed for this apparatus which writes independent monochromatic images to the video signal. The software has two monochromatic image windows, basic image manipulation tools, and two video feed input display windows. Two complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors are positioned to record the reconstructed image of the object mask and the diffraction pattern created by the object mask. The object and filter mask can be digitally changed and the effects on the filtered image and diffraction pattern can be observed in real-time. The entire apparatus is assembled onto a rolling cart which allows it to be easily taken into classrooms. </p>

<p> Precise characterization of waveguide parameters is necessary for the successful design of nonlinear photonic devices. This dissertation contains a description of methods for the experimental characterization of distributed Bragg reflectors for use in nonlinear optics and other applications. The general coupled-mode theory of Bragg reflection arising from a periodic dielectric perturbation is developed from Maxwell's equations. This theory is then applied to develop a method of characterizing the fundamental parameters that describe Bragg reflection by comparing the spectral response of Bragg reflector resonators. This method is also extended to characterize linear loss in waveguides. A model of nonlinear effects in Bragg reflector resonators manifesting in bistability is also developed, as this phenomenon can be detrimental to the characterization method. Specific recommendations are made regarding waveguide fabrication and experimental design to reduce sources of experimental error.</p>

<p> We have developed a one dimensional numeric simulation of the amplification of broadband laser light in a chirped pulse amplification (CPA) system containing an amplifier with a broadband gain spectrum. We present the theory concerning the generation of laser pulses and pulse shape altering effects. We model the amplification of monochromatic light in a narrow bandwidth amplifier as demonstrated by Lee M. Frantz and John S. Nodvik in their 1963 paper. Using the CPA method, we expand this model to describe the amplification of broadband laser pulses by an amplifier with a broadband gain profile. This model represents systems that are dominated by inhomogeneous broadening, as well as homogeneous broadening effects. Our model also addresses the effects of gain saturation within the amplifier. We present the theory supporting this model and discuss its implementation in a LabView hosted environment. We then present results modeled for several systems.</p>

<p>In this dissertation, experimentally measured spectral and coherence evolution of supercontinuum (SC) is presented. Highly nonlinear soft-glass photonic crystal fibers (PCF) were used for SC generation, including lead-silicate (Schott SF6) PCFs of a few different lengths: 10.5 cm, 4.7 mm, and 3.9 mm, and a tellurite PCF of 2.7 cm. The pump is an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) at 1550 nm with pulse energy in the order of nanojoule (nJ) and pulse duration of 105 femtosecond (fs). The coherence of SC was measured using the delayed-pulse method, where the interferometric signal was sent into an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) and spectral fringes were recorded. By tuning the pump power, power-dependent evolution of spectrum and coherence was obtained. Numerical simulations based on the generalized nonlinear Schrodinger equation (GNLSE) were performed. To match the measured data, the simulated spectral evolution was optimized by iteratively tuning parameters and comparing features. To further match the simulated coherence evolution with the measurement, shot noise and pulse-to-pulse power fluctuation were added in the pump, and the standard deviation of the fluctuation was tuned. Good agreement was obtained between the simulated and the measured spectral evolution, in spite of the unavailability of some physical parameters for simulation. It is demonstrated in principle that, given a measured spectral evolution, the fiber length, and the average power of SC, all other parameters can be determined unambiguously, and the spectral evolution can be reproduced in the simulations. Most importantly, the soliton fission length can be simulated accurately. The spectral evolution using the 4.7- and the 3.9-mm SF6 PCFs shows a pattern dominated by self phase modulation (SPM). This indicates that, these fiber lengths are close to the soliton fission length at the maximum power. The spectral evolution using the 10.5-cm SF6 PCF and the 2.7-cm tellurite PCF shows a soliton-fission-dominated pattern, indicating these lengths are much longer than the soliton fission length at the maximum power. For the coherence evolution using the SF6 PCFs, the simulations and the measurements show qualitative agreement, confirming the association between coherence degradation and soliton fission. For the case of the tellurite PCF, nearly quantitative agreement is shown, and it is shown that the solitonic coherence degrades slower than the overall coherence. Fluctuation of coherence occurs at the regime where the coherence starts to degrade, in the measurement and the simulations of the SF6-PCF case. It is shown that the cause is the pulse-to-pulse power fluctuation in the pump. The pulse-to-pulse stability of spectral intensity is another characterization of SC stability, other than the coherence. It is shown by simulations that these two exhibit different dynamics, and have low correlation.

The pulsed HF chemical laser was discovered in 1966 by Deutsch. Early lasers had very low power outputs; it is only more recently that high power pulsed HF/DF lasers have emerged. This thesis is concerned with the development of a 10J HF laser in 1976 and subsequent interaction experiments. The high power HF/DF laser is a potentially valuable new device in view of its large gain coefficient and output intermediate in wavelength to the Nd:glass and CO2 laser. Information on interactions at this wavelength has been lacking and the solid target interactions presented here help to remedy this deficiency. In addition, certain investigations were carried out using the CO2 laser. These experiments aided direct comparison of the interaction data at the two infra-red wavelengths.In the first chapter basic laser-plasma interaction theory is discussed. A vacuum environment is firstly considered, and emphasis is given to those models relevant to target irradiances available in our laboratories. Anomalous heating is only superficially treated as these studies were carried out below the non-linear thresholds. The theoretical variation of plasma parameters with laser wavelength is presented next, followed by a consideration of the gaseous environment. A brief review of pulsed HF laser design is gIven In chapter 2 followed by an account of our own design studies in the next chapter. Chapters 4 and 5 are devoted to laser-target interaction studies employing vacuum and gaseous environments respectively. The first published comprehensive vacuum interaction study, using the HF laser, is presented in chapter 4. The Z dependence of ion-velocity scaling, ion-number scaling, and reflection variation is recorded, together with the first x-ray temperature measurements at this wavelength. The gaseous environment is considered in the following chapter, where thermal coupling and laser supported detonation wave observations are given. Chapter 6 deals with vacuum interaction studies carried out at the CO2 wavelength. The final chapters deal with the comparison of experimental results with theory, together with a general review of other published interaction investigations.