Disa comprises 163 species, 131 of which occur in South Africa (SA). The genus is distributed across winter- and summer-rainfall areas, but few species transverse both climatic regions. Species are therefore regarded as winter-rainfall or summer-rainfall endemics - yet release their seeds in autumn, irrespective of provenance. Disa contributes 40 % of threatened Orchidaceae in SA, with half of the local species requiring conservation initiatives. In vitro seed germination is a potential conservation tool for producing large numbers of genetically diverse plants in relatively short periods. However, only 11 winter-rainfall Disa species are easily germinated ex situ. Studies were therefore undertaken on summer-rainfall taxa, which are ungerminated in vitro, in an effort to define their germination parameters. This thesis describes mechanisms that control germination in Disa and establishes practical propagation methods for seed culture. Two seed types occur in Disa; i) comparatively large, pale and pyriform seeds in members of the D. uniflora sub-c1ade, which populate streamside habitats under conditions of winter-rainfall maxima, and ii) smaller, variously brown and fusiform seeds in the remainder of the genus. Seed morphometrics distinguished seed types, although embryo dimensions were similar. Testa continuity, which is disrupted in the large seeds, also supported separation. Typically, small seeds are ungerminated in vitro, whilst large seeds germinated readily. Increased seed size did not necessarily impart increased germ inability, as several germinable, small-seeded species exist - being winter-rainfall species Attempts to establish in vitro germinability revealed that increased water availability and charcoal supplementation promoted germination in intractable species. The control of germination was therefore proposed as a trade-off between water availability and the presence of phyto-inhibitors - two features typical of seeds exhibiting water-impermeable dormancy. Three germinability categories were recognized; i) easily germinable species, ii) poorly germinable species through media manipulation, and iii) ungerminated species. Germination of immature seed in the absence of media modification was comparable to mature seed germination under modified conditions, providing evidence of the role of an impermeable seed testa in regulating germination. Testa impermeability in mature, small-seeded species was demonstrated using aqueous EVANS' blue dye and was linked to i) testa integrity and ii) increased levels of leachable phenolics (LPC) - which are hydrophobic and phytotoxic. In addition, this research revealed an impervious and elaborate embryo carapace in small seeds. Large-seeded species were highly permeable at dehiscence, with perforated testae and negligible LPC. Germinability was ultimately defined by a significant regression with LPC. Phenolic deposition increased exponentially with increasing seed maturity and reflected decreased permeability and the development of testa colouration. The testa precludes the use of viability stains such as nc and FDA, unless rendered permeable through scarification. This was achieved using NaOCI. Viability and germinability percentages did not correlate well for the small-seeded Disa species, indicating that i) the methods used to break dormancy are inadequate, ii) additional factors may be acting in concert with the testa to regulate germination and iii) that the determination of mature Disa seed viability is ineffective. As an alternative, the germination potential of immature seed was estimated as the ratio between the proportion of embryos stained with TTC and the proportion of seeds permeable to EVANS' blue. Attempts to relieve water-impermeable dormancy in Disa resulted in the formulation of a dual-phase protocol - with the specific aim of increasing water availability to the embryo. Dual-phase cultures comprised a solid, charcoal-rich medium overlaid with a reduced strength, liquid medium fraction of the same type. The solid fraction negated the influence of leached phenols and allowed protocorms to establish polarity, whilst the fluid fraction increased water availability. The dual-phase protocol allowed germination of nine summer-rainfall Disa species, usually in percentages that approximated their estimated germination potential. For the remaining species, germination is controlled by more complex factors. Large seeds are atypical in containing starch, the hydrolysis of which facilitated their rapid, autonomous germination. Small-seeded Disa species stored lipids and proteins and germinable species accumulated starch post-germination. The embryo protoplasts of all species contained appreciable amounts of soluble sugars, irrespective of germinability. However, decreased sucrose and increased fructose correlated significantly with decreased seed germinability. This study provides evidence of the nutritional value of mycotrophy, with endophytes liberating soluble carbohydrate and non-carbohydrate compounds upon lysis. However, few species were germinated symbiotically, suggesting that endophytes isolated from adult roots do not necessarily support germination in the same species. Similar endophytic fungi occur in Australian and Holarctic orchids. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Orchids provide a model system for addressing evolutionary and ecological questions both because of their species diversity, and because the packaging of their pollen into pollinia facilitates the estimation of male and female pollination success. This thesis focuses on the ecology and evolution of pollination systems in the African orchid genus Eulophia, with an emphasis on deceptive pollination, mechanisms promoting cross-pollination, and pollinatordriven speciation. Pollination in the deceptive species E. zeyheriana is shown to depend on flower colour and proximity to the rewarding model species, Wahlenbergia cuspidata (Campanulacae). This study demonstrates the functional importance of colour matching between model and mimic in a floral Batesian mimicry system, as well as the importance of facilitation by the rewarding model [chapter 2]. The pollinaria of the vast majority of Eulophia and Acrolophia species undergo reconfiguration following removal by pollinators, similar to the phenomena first described by Darwin in some European orchids and which he hypothesised to be adaptations to limit pollinator mediated self-pollination. In chapter 3, a less common mechanism – anther cap retention – is described for E. foliosa. Observations of reconfiguration times were compared to the respective visit times by pollinators in a number of orchids (including Eulophia and Acrolophia) and asclepiads. In 18 of 19 species, pollinarium reconfiguration times exceed the average visit times, providing empirical support for Darwin’s cross-pollination hypothesis [chapter 4]. All of the 25 species of Eulophia examined are deceptive, but two of the three species in the small, closely related Cape genus Acrolophia examined in chapter 5 are rewarding. This translates into very high levels of pollen transfer efficiency in the rewarding A. cochlearis relative to the deceptive A. capensis and species of Eulophia. In addition, A. cochlearis exhibits high rates of pollinator-mediated self-pollination, as quantified using a novel method based on levels of inbreeding depression during embryo development. In chapter 6 the evolutionary divergence of long- and short-spurred forms of E. parviflora in response to different pollinators is investigated. This shows that divergence has occurred in floral morphology, scent chemistry and flowering phenology and that this can be attributed to adaptations to the respective bee and beetle pollinators of each form. This thesis also includes case histories of bee pollination in an additional five Eulophia species, and beetle-pollination in two other species of Eulophia with dense inflorescences and slow pollinarium reconfiguration [chapter 7]. In addition, four taxa were found to undergo auto-pollination [chapter 8]. The main conclusions of this thesis are that pollination of food-deceptive species can be enhanced by spatial proximity to, and floral colour matching with, sympatric rewarding species; that selection strongly favours traits that promote cross-pollination; that pollinatorshifts can drive speciation; and that floral adaptations for bee-, beetle-, and auto-pollination are found in South African representatives of Eulophia. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

The Orchidaceae makes up the largest and most diverse family of flowering plants. Orchids are popular, often expensive ornamentals, with a broad range of ethnobotanical applications. There is very limited documented information on South African medicinal orchid species; no formal pharmacopoeia outlining ethnobotanical uses; and ethnobotanical and distribution records are either scarce or inconsistent and plant populations are becoming gradually smaller. There have been significant developments in medicinal orchid research worldwide with medicinal use and corresponding pharmacological and phytochemical properties being extensively investigated. It is evident from the literature that there is no pharmacological research on South African medicinal orchids; hence the need to explore biological activity and chemical composition of South African medicinal orchid species. The ethnobotanical approach used to select the orchid species for pharmacological and phytochemical research elsewhere, yielded valuable biological compounds. Thus, a similar approach was applied to South African medicinal orchids. There are approximately 20 000 species and 796 genera of orchids distributed across the world. In southern Africa, orchids are widely represented with 55 genera and 494 species. Approximately 75% are endemic to this region. As part of the current investigation a review of available ethnobotanical literature on South African medicinal orchids was prepared. The review revealed that an estimated 49 indigenous orchid species from 20 orchid genera are currently being informally traded and used in South African traditional medicine. They are used primarily for medicinal and cultural purposes, especially by the Zulu community in South Africa. Medicinal uses of orchid species include: treatment of inflammatory, intestinal, neurological and reproductive disorders and emetics are used to cause emesis. Non-medicinal uses of orchid species include: love, fertility, protective and lethal charms. Based on their ethnobotanical uses and endemism, South African orchids were considered to be one of the untapped sources of bioactive compounds that needed to be researched. The current investigation addressed the broader aims of medicinal plant research by determining the efficacy, safety and chemical profile of seven indigenous orchid species used in South African traditional medicine and practices. The biological and toxic effects of orchid plant extracts were assessed using established pharmacological bioassays. The phytochemical evaluation of the seven orchid plant extracts provided insight into the classes of chemical compounds present and their possible role in the observed biological activities. The potential of plant extracts from seven orchid species used in South African traditional medicine, as sources of natural bioactive products, are discussed. The current investigation determined the biological activity and chemical profile of seven orchid species commonly traded in KwaZulu-Natal herbal markets: Ansellia africana Lindl., Bulbophyllum scaberulum (Rolfe) Bolus, Cyrtorchis arcuata (Lindl.) Schltr., Eulophia hereroensis Schltr., Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f., Polystachya pubescens (Lindl.) Rchb.f. and Tridactyle tridentata (Harv.) Schltr. Well established in vitro micro-dilution bioassays were used to determine the antibacterial, antifungal, anthelmintic activities of crude orchid extracts. A minimum inhibitory and/or lethal effect of organic and aqueous crude orchid extracts was observed against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Caenorhabditis elegans. Tridactyle tridentata aqueous root extract produced the most effective antibacterial activity against S. aureus (0.049 mg/ml). All T. tridentata organic root extracts produced significant inhibitory activities against B. subtilis and S. aureus. Eulophia petersii DCM pseudobulb extracts significantly inhibited all bacterial strains tested (0.39 mg/ml against S. aureus and 0.78 mg/ml against B. subtilis, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae). Eulophia hereroensis 80% EtOH root extract was the only other extract to exhibit significant inhibitory effects against K. pneumoniae (0.65 mg/ml). After 48 h C. albicans was most susceptible to P. pubescens aqueous pseudobulb extract (0.0816 mg/ml). Eulophia petersii DCM pseudobulb extract however, exhibited significant activity against C. albicans (0.65 mg/ml) over 72 h. Cyrtorchis arcuata leaf and root extracts were the most effective anthelmintic extracts with MLCs of 0.041 mg/ml for 80% EtOH leaf and root extracts; 0.049 mg/ml for aqueous leaf extracts and 0.78 mg/ml for aqueous and DCM root extracts. Caenorhabditis elegans was most susceptible to all A. africana and T. tridentata organic root extracts. A similar significant effect was observed for all E. petersii organic pseudobulb extracts, DCM extracts and organic root extracts of B. scaberulum. Only the DCM tuber and root extracts of E. hereroensis exhibited lethal effects on C. elegans. All of the P. pubescens extracts showed poor anthelmintic activity. Similarly, in vitro enzyme based cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2 and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory bioassays, revealed significant inhibition of COX-1, COX-2 and AChE enzymes by crude organic and certain aqueous orchid extracts. Out of a total of 53 evaluated extracts, 21 and 13 extracts exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity in the COX-1 and COX-2 assays respectively. The DCM tuber extract of E. hereroensis was the only extract to significantly inhibit both COX enzymes, 100.02±0.11% and 87.97±8.38% respectively. All B. scaberulum root extracts (DCM, EtOH and water) exhibited COX-2 selective inhibitory activity (100.06±0.01, 93.31±2.33 and 58.09±3.25%). Overall, the DCM root extract of A. africana was found to be the most potent extract (EC50 0.25±0.10 mg/ml). The 80% EtOH root extract of B. scaberulum was the most potent in the COX-2 assay (EC50 0.44±0.32 mg/ml). Generally the root extracts exhibited greater AChE inhibitory activity; where the most active extract was B. scaberulum DCM root extract (EC50 0.02±0.00 mg/ml). All aqueous extracts, except that of A. africana roots and B. scaberulum pseudobulbs, showed poor or no COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition. The antioxidant capacity of crude orchid extracts was determined using: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) (β-carotene/linoleic acid assay) and single electron transfer (SET) (2,2‟-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay) reaction-based assays. Potent antioxidant effects were observed for certain crude methanolic orchid extracts. Generally, there was a dose-dependent change in radical scavenging activities of crude extracts from which EC50 values were determined. The root extracts of all species, except that of E. petersii, had consistently more effective radical scavenging activity than that of other plant parts within each species. The pseudobulb extract of E. petersii, was the most potent extract (EC50 1.32±0.86 mg/ml). In the β-carotene-linoleic acid assay, based on the oxidation rate ratio (ORR), the leaf extract of T. tridentata and the root extracts of C. arcuata and E. hereroensis exhibited the best antioxidant effects (0.02, 0.023 and -0.15 respectively). Similarly, the average antioxidant activity (%ANT) of these samples was greater than that of BHT (95.88±6.90%) and all other samples. Bulbophyllum scaberulum leaf, pseudobulb and root extracts, E. petersii pseudobulb extract and T. tridentata root extract also exhibited a greater capacity to prevent β-carotene oxidation when compared to BHT. All crude orchid extracts tested demonstrated a general dose-dependent response in the ferric reducing power assay. The reducing power of ascorbic acid (0.08 mM) and BHT (0.05 mM), as measured as absorbance, was 1.12±0.12 and 0.73±0.08 respectively. At 6.25 mg/ml, A. africana root and E. petersii pseudobulb extracts were the most effective in reducing power activity. The short-term bacterial reverse mutation Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity (ASMM) assay, which makes use of mutant histidine-dependent Salmonella typhimurium strains, was used to determine the mutagenicity and toxicity of crude orchid extracts. In the presence of a mutagen S. typhimurium TA98 strain detects frameshift events while the TA100 and TA102 strains detect base-pair substitutions. In the absence of metabolic activation, mutagenic extracts were observed against the TA98 strain only. All A. africana DCM leaf and stem extracts tested, the DCM root extract (0.5, 0.05 mg/ml) and EtOH leaf, stem and root extracts at 5 mg/ml exhibited mutagenic effects. The EtOH root extracts (5, 0.5 mg/ml) of B. scaberulum exhibited mutagenic indices (MI) comparable to that of 4NQO (17.00 and 13.00, respectively). Eulophia petersii PE pseudobulb extract demonstrated mutagenic potential at 5 mg/ml. The ethanolic root extracts of T. tridentata showed mutagenic effects at 5 and 0.5 mg/ml. The mutagenicity index (MI) with metabolic activation (S9) was determined using only the TA98 strain; where no mutagenic effects were observed. In the phytochemical evaluation of crude methanol orchid extracts, the Folin-Ciocalteu assay for total phenolics, butanol-HCl assay for condensed tannins, rhodanine assay for gallotannins and vanillin assay for flavonoids revealed a quantitative chemical profile of the tested samples. The correlation between observed biological effects and chemical compounds present was found to be generally significant. The significant antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of E. petersii pseudobulb extracts and E. hereroensis tuber and root extracts may be attributed to their high total phenolic content. Alternatively, the significant levels of gallotannin content in E. hereroensis may have contributed to the bioactivity. The flavonoid content of B. scaberulum and T. tridentata may explain the potent activity observed in the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory assays; while the flavonoid content C. arcuata may have contributed to the potent anthelmintic and antioxidant activities. The significantly higher levels of gallotannin content may explain the significant anti-inflammatory and anthelmintic activity of A. africana. A number of biologically active compounds have been isolated from certain Orchidaceae species around the world on the basis of their traditional medicinal uses. The traditional uses of these orchid species were scientifically validated. No pharmacological research has been previously conducted on South African medicinal orchids; therefore the current investigation has produced novel findings on the efficacy and safety of these orchid species and promotes the continued research of medicinal orchids in South Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.