The span of control is the most discussed single concept in classical and modern management theory. In specifying conditions for organizational effectiveness, the span of control has generally been regarded as a critical factor. Existing research work has focused mainly on qualitative methods to analyze this concept, for example heuristic rules based on experiences and/or intuition. This research takes a quantitative approach to this problem and formulates it as a binary integer model, which is used as a tool to study the organizational design issue. This model considers a range of requirements affecting management and supervision of a given set of jobs in a company. These decision variables include allocation of jobs to workers, considering complexity and compatibility of each job with respect to workers, and the requirement of management for planning, execution, training, and control activities in a hierarchical organization. The objective of the model is minimal operations cost, which is the sum of supervision costs at each level of the hierarchy, and the costs of workers assigned to jobs. The model is intended for application in the make-to-order industries as a design tool. It could also be applied to make-to-stock companies as an evaluation tool, to assess the optimality of their current organizational structure. Extensive experiments were conducted to validate the model, to study its behavior, and to evaluate the impact of changing parameters with practical problems. This research proposes a meta-heuristic approach to solving large-size problems, based on the concept of greedy algorithms and the Meta-RaPS algorithm. The proposed heuristic was evaluated with two measures of performance: solution quality and computational speed. The quality is assessed by comparing the obtained objective function value to the one achieved by the optimal solution. The computational efficiency is assessed by comparing the computer time used by the proposed heuristic to the time taken by a commercial software system. Test results show the proposed heuristic procedure generates good solutions in a time-efficient manner.

<p> Research suggested that multicultural team performance is influenced by several variables, but research on the topic has produced conflictive results. It has been suggested that bicultural individuals, due to their dual cultural schemas, can be very competent in mediating the effectiveness of bicultural teams through the use of boundary spanning and conflict perception competencies. Many studies on the topic of multicultural team effectiveness have been performed with college students or under simulated environments, which limits the generalizability of the. To address this research gap, this study provided empirical evidence on the effectiveness of multicultural teams in a real working scenario. A set of validated questionnaires previously published in peer review journals were used to survey 337 bicultural individuals that have been part of a multicultural team for more than one year. The individuals were surveyed on their experience using boundary spanning and conflict perception bicultural competencies and on their rating of the multicultural team effectiveness. Multiple regression analysis indicates that both boundary spanning and conflict perception bicultural competencies have a significant effect on the effectiveness of multicultural teams. Perception of conflict shows the most significant predictive relationship, with immediate conflict resolution, emotional conflict and disagreements on who should do what the most strongly related items to the effectiveness of multicultural teams.</p>

<p> The purpose of the research study was to predict managerial resistance to status quo bias given the presence of dissatisfaction, vision, and a process outlined for change in the environment. According to the 79 participants surveyed in the study, dissatisfaction, vision, and a process outlined for change provided a statistically significant model for predicting manager resistance to status quo bias for the sample studied. Leaders may be able to use the results of the study to determine manager readiness for change. However, at best the study found only 45.3% of the reasons that predict managerial resistance to status quo bias, providing an opportunity for future researchers to validate empirically other factors that may predict manager resistance to status quo bias.</p>

<p> Employees who remain with an organization because they want to, represent a positive&nbsp;organizational phenomenon known as affective commitment (AC). The purpose of this study is to investigate the predictive ability of strategic Human Resource (HR) practices to create AC in the context of federal knowledge workers, determine the role of SOAR in the relationship between strategic HR practices and AC, and the effect of AC on positive behavioral outcomes. SOAR stands for strengths, opportunities, aspirations, and results. </p><p> This mixed methods study explored the relationship among strategic HR practices, SOAR, AC, and behavioral outcomes. Data were gathered using a survey instrument containing 42 items. The population was federal knowledge workers in a science and technology field. 204 participants completed the study survey and a final sample of N = 188 surveys were used for analysis. </p><p> Quantitative analysis was conducted using descriptive and inferential statistics; qualitative analysis included thematic analysis. Results from the quantitative analysis suggested that strategic HR practices predict AC; the SOAR construct is a partial mediator of the relationship between strategic HR practices and AC; SOAR did not function as a moderator of the relationship between strategic HR practices and AC; and AC encourages the development of positive behavioral outcomes. Results from the qualitative thematic analysis suggested that there are seven prominent themes that sustain commitment in this federal organization and they are: accountability, career advancement, leadership, meaningful work, mission, reward/recognition, and training. </p><p> For federal organizations similar to this one, it is recommended that they engage the SOAR approach to increase the effectiveness of strategic HR practices in generating&nbsp;AC; implement strategic HR practices that encompass the seven major themes; a positive proactive way of viewing employee commitment by cultivating AC as opposed to studying turnover trends; and engage in conversations about strategic change using dialogical methods based on appreciative inquiry. Future research could include studies on how the federal government communicates strategic HR practices to their employees and whether or not they choose to adopt dialogical versus diagnostic approaches.</p>

<p> In spite of the prevalence of methods and literature devoted to church health, many churches remain plateaued or are declining. Some churches ignore reality and base their worth and identity on things less than biblical identity and Christian mission. Many declining churches demonstrate an environment similar to the codependency seen in addictive family systems. The published literature has expanded the understanding of the concept of codependency that was traditionally applied to family systems affected by alcohol and substance abuse by applying it to dysfunctional organizational structures. This project builds on this research. It investigated the hypothesis that dysfunctional churches exhibit dynamics similar to codependent family systems. The project adapted the Spann-Fischer Scale for Codependency, and in a pilot study of nine churches, two scales were developed: Church Health (a = .891) and Church Codependency (a = .745). A moderate negative correlation (r = -.431) between these scales supported this hypothesis. It appears that the concept of codependency possesses elements that could assist church leaders to better understand dysfunctional churches. The project suggests a new approach to church health in certain environments and provides a new lens through which those desiring to help the local church grow might view their work.</p>

<p> Assessing and developing organizational or collective resilience capacity is a strengths-based approach to managing continuous and unexpected change as a strategic capability. In this study, organizational resilience capacity is defined as a vital readiness that is built up by employee beliefs and behaviors. Human resource and management interventions have been recommended to strengthen this capacity. These are described as antecedents, enablers, and inducements designed to foster vital conditions that support relevant employee beliefs, feelings, and actions. Yet, there is little empirical evidence about which specific beliefs and behaviors to foster and no tool for assessing their strength. Interventions, then, cannot reliably be said to strengthen organizational resilience capacity. To address this gap, an exploratory, quantitative study was designed with two objectives: (a) identify specific employee beliefs and behaviors associated with this capacity from the organizational resilience literature and (b) design a scale using these items to explore how collective resilience capacity is constructed. After testing the Organizational Resilience Capacity Scale with employees in a manufacturing company (<i>n</i>=223), results suggested that there are specific beliefs and behaviors associated empirically with organizational resilience capacity. These can be assessed to support organizational understanding, direct evidence-based interventions, and provide a measure of accountability for impacting a latent, yet strategic, capability. The relationship between individual resilience capacity and organizational resilience capacity was also assessed, showing a small, but significant effect. That is, resilient individuals may contribute to vital conditions, but they do not create a resilient organization. </p>

<p> This case study explored how specific behaviors shape the connections between people within an inter-sector health collaborative as an important antecedent to achieving collaborative outcomes. The primary research question guiding this study was, &ldquo;How do individual complexity leader behaviors&mdash;a subset of complexity leadership behaviors&mdash;shape the connectivity of agents within a complex adaptive system made up of elected, unpaid volunteers immediately following their annual strategic planning retreat?&rdquo; Methods included observations, interviews, and document review. Individual complexity leader behaviors (CLBs) were found to shape the connectivity of agents within this complex adaptive system in a variety of ways that depended on the extant level of connectivity between agents. Specifically, when experiencing low-negative connectivity, the utility of CLBs shaped the extant connectivity in a negative manner. When experiencing low-neutral connectivity, the utility of CLBs shaped the extant connectivity in either a negative or a positive manner, or in a manner that reinforced the status quo. When experiencing moderate connectivity, the utility of CLBs shaped the extant connectivity in a manner that reinforced the status quo or the behavior made no impact on the extant connectivity. Lastly, when experiencing high/deep connectivity, the utility of CLBs shaped the extant connectivity in a positive manner, in a manner that reinforced the status quo, or the behavior made no impact on the extant connectivity. There were also a number of additional findings related to the nature of both CLBs and the indices of connectivity. These findings are critical given that the relative connectivity of agents within a complex adaptive system is predictive of that system&rsquo;s capacity to achieve outcomes. This study empirically supports and extends several core assumptions of complexity leadership theory; it also demonstrates that individual CLBs are identifiable and influential; that anybody can utilize CLBs; and that CLBs should be intentionally and mindfully utilized. Moreover, this study empirically supports the existence of non-linearity and (inter)connectivity in complex adaptive systems; it also demonstrates the versatility of connectivity and its indices. The results of this study have practical implications for inter-sector collaboratives&mdash;particularly related to how they utilize complexity leadership behaviors and achieve outcomes&mdash;and for capacity-building practitioners&mdash;specifically related to re-framing their conceptualization of leadership for their students.</p>

<p> Non-executive directors (NEDs) are external members of an organization&rsquo;s board of directors. These directors&rsquo; most significant contribution arguably is found in the quality of their strategic insights, as they ostensibly bring a fresh perspective and set of experiences to acts of strategy and sense making. This study examined NEDs&rsquo; contribution to the environmental scanning phase of an organization&rsquo;s strategic planning process. Data were gathered from a convenience sample of seven current NEDs. Findings indicated that the framing process used during the environmental scanning phase directly influenced how NEDs make sense of the environment. Additionally, NEDs were found to prefer an &ldquo;objective&rdquo; environment that is externally located. Finally, NEDs consciously appraise each other&rsquo;s contribution to the overall discussion. Study findings were incorporated into a conceptual model. Future studies should use a larger sample of NEDs, including peers from the same boards and those from across multiple industries.</p>

<p> This exploratory qualitative study was used to explore the perceptions of team leads and team members of globally dispersed virtual matrix cross-functional teams regarding the four constructs of interaction influence team performance as they work together to complete projects. The four constructs of interaction &ndash; technology, communication, trust, and understanding cultural diversity formed the basis for the research question and a series of interview questions that sought responses from globally dispersed virtual team leads and team members from around the world. Participants in this study came from Australia, Brazil, China, England, Greece, India, Ireland, Poland, Thailand, and the United States. The participants also represented individuals working in Information Technology, Sourcing, Consulting, Retail, Manufacturing, and a Religious organization who provided their perspective on their teams&rsquo; interactions. Using the responses from this cross-section of individuals from countries and industries the researcher found that the four constructs of interaction, when used correctly, are perceived to improve the performance of globally dispersed virtual teams. The strength of themes reported by team members through the interview process showed that the participants thought the four constructs improved team interaction. This study allowed the extension of a branch of non-goal organizational theory to include team level interactions to the performance of a globally dispersed virtual team.</p>

<p> Although researchers have discovered many of the beneficial and positive consequences of employee engagement, little is known about the multitude of antecedent factors that lead to employee engagement. Previous research has demonstrated that an individual&rsquo;s gender is a factor in engagement, and that an employee&rsquo;s racioethnic similarity with a supervisor, job characteristics, and perceived organizational support, are all antecedents of engagement. The present study focused on individual personality, the perceived quality of employees&rsquo; working relationships with their supervisors, and their work roles as either managers or subordinates, to identify whether those variables contribute to employee engagement. This study&rsquo;s survey, administered to 96 respondents in the work force, using hierarchical multiple regression analysis, found that the personality sub-domain of conscientiousness, based on the Big Five model of personality, and the perceived quality of relationship with one&rsquo;s supervisor, based on Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory, were positively related to, and predicted employee engagement.</p>