Parascaris equorum is a nematode parasite that infects young horses, sometimes causing unthriftiness, respiratory signs, or intestinal impaction in severe cases. Infection can be diagnosed by detection of eggs in feces, but this is only possible after the worms are fully mature. The goal of this study was to develop an antibody-based test for prepatent diagnosis of P. equorum infection. To produce western blot (WB) antigen, P. equorum larvae were cultured for collection of excretory-secretory antigens (ESA). Sera from 18 pregnant broodmares, their subsequent foals, and a group of 12 older mares and geldings were analyzed. In order to check for cross-reactivity between P. equorum and other ascarid species and equine parasites, additional sera were analyzed. Sera from a horse with monospecific P. equorum infection was compared to horses with monospecific Strongyloides westeri or cyathostome infections, rabbits inoculated with Baylisascaris procyonis or Toxocara canis eggs, dogs naturally infected with T. canis, and rabbits immunized with B. procyonis or P. equorum ESA. Molecular weights of silver-stained P. equorum larval ESA ranged between 12 to 94 kDa. In WB analysis, sera from 94% of broodmares contained IgG(T) antibody that recognized multiple P. equorum larval ESA. Foals showed no IgG(T) antibodies pre-suckle, but antibodies similar to their dams were observed post-suckle and thereafter. Of the older mares and geldings, 58% had IgG(T) antibodies recognizing larval ESA. Serum IgG(T) antibodies against P. equorum larval ESA were also found in parasite-free and monospecific infection equine sera. Ascarid positive foals did not produce detectable amounts of IgE or IgM antibodies against larval ESA. When P. equorum, T. canis, and B. procyonis antibody reactivity was compared, antigens at 19 kDa and 34 kDa had the highest potential for identification of larval P. equorum infections. When immature adult P. equorum ESA was examined, IgG(T) antibody recognition was demonstrated in 50% of broodmares and 17% of the older horses, and appeared several weeks prior to patency in foal serum. Results indicate that IgG(T) antibodies against P. equorum ESA are common in mature horses, and are transferred from mare to foal, limiting the diagnostic potential of an antibody-based test.

Approximately half of all reported laminitis cases are the result of “grass founder” (laminitis associated with long-term over consumption of lush, early spring pastures). Elevated body weights (BW), body condition scores (BCS), and blood glucose concentrations have all been associated with the onset of grass founder. Plasma fructosamine concentrations (PFC) have recently been used as an indicator of long-term (14–21 d), mean blood glucose concentrations in horses and numerous authors have reported that elevated PFC were observed in laminitic horses (Murphy et al., 1997; Keen et al., 2004; Knowles et al., 2012). This study was conducted to evaluate the long-term effects of transitioning from an ad-libitum tall fescue hay diet in late winter to an adlibitum tall fescue pasture diet in early spring on parameters associated with grass founder in horses. Five mature stock horse mares were given free choice access to good quality tall fescue hay for 18 weeks before initiation of data collection. Each horse acted as their own control. PFC were determined on day 1, day 128, and then monitored at 14 d intervals for the following 84 d (February 26th through May 21st). Three trained lab technicians evaluated BW and BCS on day 1, 128, 170 and 212 of the trial. The horses were placed in a 20 acre field where their diets consisted of free choice access to hay only for 156 days (DTP1) followed by free choice access to tall fescue hay with minimal access to some early emerging tall fescue pasture for 14 days (DTP2), and finally to free choice access to lush spring tall fescue pasture only for the final 42 days (DTP 3) when the animals refused to eat offered hay. Mean PFC were highest (P < 0.01) for DTP1 and decreased with each successive transition to DTP2 and DTP3. This may have been due to increased insulin secretion associated with the pasture only diet. Mean BCS at the beginning of the trial was 5.7 and increased throughout the trial (P < 0.001) to a value of 7.8. BCS associated with the pasture only diet were higher (P < 0.001) than those associated with the free choice hay and hay plus pasture diets. Mean BW increased (P < 0.05) from 1199 lbs. to 1268.3 lbs. during the 12-week trial. Mean weight gain was 113 lbs. with an average daily gain of 1.35 lbs./day. No incidence of laminitis was observed.

As early as 1850 many reports of observations of the blind cave animals were made by both scientific and popular writers. Tellkempf, Agassiz, Forbes and Silliman were some of the earlier scientists who studied the eyes of cave animals. Eigenmann made a histological study of the cave vertebrates of America. In a study of Forbesichthys papilliferus, a semi-blind cave fish, Jennie Miller Orr found important structural modifications in the eyes of this species. Since no comparative histological studies of the eyes of cave animals seem to have been made, it was decided to make such a study with a view to determining whether these structural differences are similar in different cave animals. The animals chosen for this study are: Hadenoecus subterraneous, the so-called cave cricket; Cambarus pellucidus, the blind cave crayfish; Forbesichthys papilliferus, the semi-blind cave fish and Typhlichthys subterraneous, a blind cave fish. Eigenmann states that degeneration of eye tissue occurs in certain forms in the absence of light. A comparative histological study of the eyes of cave species and of those having normal eyes should reveal the nature of this degeneration.

The small mammal population of a restricted study area was live-trapped on the University farm at Western Kentucky University from November 1984 through November 1985. A total of 1800 trap-nights yielded 81 different individuals representing five species. Members of the genera Peromyscus and Microtus were the dominant individuals representing over 90% of the total. Also caught were Mus musculus and Blarina brevicauda. The members of the two major genera were examined for population size and dynamics. In addition, a statistical analysis was carried out on the randomness of the location of the home ranges. This analysis gave evidence that the Peromyseus population was centered primarily in the ecotone between field and forest while Microtus was centered exclusively in the field habitat. In addition, the absence or near absence of Microtus for part of the year allowed the Peromyscus population to expand into the field for a short time. Finally, the year long study revealed a characteristic population cycle for each major species due to a combination of reproductive rates, feeding habits and decimation by predation.

In this set of studies, a proteomic approach was used to investigate the protein profile of the mammary epithelial cell (MEC) through different stages of mammary development. The HC11 cell line was used to investigate protein changes between undifferentiated and differentiated MEC, which represent the pregnant and lactating states of the cells. This comparison revealed an interesting differential expression profile underscoring many recognized processes that occur in differentiated MECs, while others unveiled differences between MEC differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Primary MEC were also isolated from virgin, pregnant, and primiparous quiescent mice to compare the virgin state of the cell to the other two stages of development. These comparisons added to a previous dataset of primary isolated MEC and generated data that implied a surprising level of activity in virgin MEC relative to the other stages of development investigated. Differentially expressed proteins in the virgin and primiparous quiescent comparison also added to evidence of persisting changes occurring in the gland after a full term pregnancy that are implicated in the risk for breast cancer development. Data sets generated in the same manner from differentiating MEC were used in the development of a database to help manage the growing list of differentially expressed proteins and aid in the identification of potential interesting patterns of regulation during mammary development and differentiation.

The CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein delta (C/EBPδ) is a highly conserved transcription factor capable of regulating numerous cell fate processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis. C/EBPδ is inducible during cellular stress responses, including inflammation and responses to growth factor deprivation or thermal stress. C/EBPδ is stress-inducible in a diversity of fishes, including the zebrafish Danio rerio; however, little is known about its role in fish development. Here I show that overexpression of C/EBPδ leads to severe developmental defects, including reduced body length, edema, liver malformation and retinal abnormalities. The proportion of individuals that display developmental abnormalities is significantly greater in C/EBPδ-overexpressing embryos compared to control embryos and overexpression significantly reduces survival of larvae over time. TUNEL analysis suggests C/EBPδ-overexpressing embryos exhibit a pattern of apoptotic cell death which is spatially distinct from control embryos. These data support a critical role for C/EBPδ in numerous developmental processes, including promoting programmed cell death during development. Mutations in C/EBPδ have been implicated in the progression of human tumors, including those of myeloid, hepatocellular and breast cancers. Therefore, the C/EBPδ-overexpressing zebrafish will serve as a valuable model for examining the role of this gene during development, as a part of the cellular response to stress and in pathological states such as tumor progression.

Invasion physiology is an emerging field that endeavors to understand the influence of physiological traits on the establishment of non-native species in novel environments. The invasive European green crab,Carcinus maenas, is one of the world's most successful aquatic invaders, and is currently distributed across temperate marine ecosystems globally. The work presented here explored the thermal physiology of this species, and has highlighted several physiological traits that have likely influenced establishment success. Intraspecific comparisons of crabs sampled from the northern and southern edges of their recipient, or invaded range on the west coast of North America have identified both organismal and cellular physiological difference with respect to upper and lower thermal tolerances. Crabs sampled from British Columbia, Canada (BC) had a significantly lower mean upper thermal tolerance threshold and heat shock protein synthesis, Hsp70, compared to their warm acclimated conspecifics sampled from California (CA). These differential physiologic responses may be rooted in the disparate natural thermal habitats that each population occupies within their respective environments. The ability of this species to extend its current range limits was also investigated. Range expansion to the south has been limited, and is likely restricted by this species lack of adaptation to warmer temperatures. Because range expansion has been chiefly northward, characterizing this species' response to cold stress can identify whether colder temperatures poleward may limit further range expansion. Cold tolerance capacity was determined in the laboratory, and crabs sampled from Vancouver Island, British Columbia were able to withstand the over-wintering thermal regime that occurs in Sitka, Alaska, a site that is currently beyond the range limits of this species. Furthermore, intraspecific assessments found that the cold acclimated BC population exposed to cold shock significantly down regulated protein levels of cyclin D1, cell cycle modulator. Distinct differences in carapace width (CW) were detected along the thermal gradient present in the green crabs' range. This variation in body size was utilized to the test the temperature size rule hypothesis for ectotherms. Simply stated, the temperature size rule is the tendency for ectotherms to develop slower but mature to a larger body sizes at cooler temperatures. The results supported this hypothesis as crabs sampled from the warm portion of the range were found to be smaller than crabs sampled from the colder portion of the range. This pattern was detected along the native range as well. Differences in body size have the potential to influence the scope of invasion; larger individuals are generally more fecund and longer lived, which can increase both the intensity and frequency of larval dispersal that could further propel range expansion. The physiologic properties that the green crab possesses which may influence invasion success were examined using peer-reviewed literature with the aim of determining if these physiological traits confer invasion success across taxa. This analysis tested four hypotheses: 1) Broad geographic temperature tolerances (thermal width) confer a higher upper thermal tolerance threshold when comparing invasive and native species. 2) The upper thermal extreme experienced in nature is correlated with upper thermal tolerance threshold. 3) Protein chaperone expression, a cellular mechanism underlying thermal tolerance threshold, is greater in invasive organisms than in native ones. 4) Acclimation to higher temperatures can promote a greater range of thermal tolerance for invasives compared to natives. These preliminary results generally support the four stated hypotheses, and provide a solid foundation for further studies to explore and identify physiologic traits that facilitate invasion success. Overall, these studies investigated the thermal physiology ofCarcinus maenasfrom an invasive metapopulation and have brought about significant advances in our understanding of what physiologic traits correlate to invasion success in this species. In addition, the data presented here can aid resource managers in identifying habitats, based on thermal tolerance measurements that fit the criteria for invasion. Understanding how invasive organisms vary with respect to thermal tolerance can aid our understanding the patterns and processes of species invasions.

The Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ Orangutan Species Survival Plan® aims to maintain 100 Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) in captivity. Because investment in breeding these lineages is high, properly managing sociality of potential mothers is essential. This study assessed how behaviors of a captive breeding female at the Smithsonian’s National Zoo changed from pre-gestation through the offspring’s sixth month of age to improve breeding recommendations. The infant Bornean orangutan was born September 2016. Results indicate that during breeding, the mother socialized most with two adult females. During pregnancy, the pregnant female socialized in less energy-consuming ways, i.e. grooming. Post-partum socialization and proximity data suggest a shift in female affiliation. The presence of another female with maternal experience may be beneficial to the rearing of new offspring. These results can help guide socialization management for pregnant captive orangutans to improve breeding outcomes.

The social behavior of brown bears (Ursus arctos) was studied during the summers of 1972 and 1973 as bears fished for salmon at McNeil River, Alaska. Study objectives were to determine behavioral characteristics of bears in relation to sex and age, changes in social behavior over a 40-day long fishing season, social and environmental parameters correlated with the occurrence of behavior, and to test the hypothesis that brown bears modify social behavior in a feeding aggregation to exploit a resource limited in time and space. Over one-half of the agonistic interactions consisted of passive deferrals. Encounters that included elements of overt threat were jawing, sparring, charges, and fighting. Jawing was the most prevalent agonistic encounter and generally occurred between individuals of the same sex and age class. Sparring, charges and fights were generally initiated by larger bears against smaller individuals. Females with young were most intolerant. Adult males participated in few encounters that involved overt threat since most bears avoided them. Single adult and adolescent females were neither particularly aggressive nor especially tolerant. Adolescent males adjusted quickly to McNeil Falls and as a group were unaggressive. Subadults were wary and frequently were the objects of aggression of older bears. Social dominance relationships between bears of the same class were often ambiguous, the exception being adult males. Relationships between bears of different classes were mostly stable; adult males were dominant, followed in order by females with young, single adult females, adolescents, and subadults. However, apparent reversals also were common between single adult females and adolescent males. Nonagonistic encounters occurred only when salmon were exceptionally abundant and usually involved adolescent and subadult bears. Behavioral changes over time included a decline in the frequency of running deferrals, a decline in deferrals in total, and a decline in the frequency of charges. The occurrence of fighting and sparring encounters did not change, but the frequency of jawing increased within each fishing season. Various factors determined salmon caught by a bear per hour of fishing effort: salmon abundance, water levels, time of day, and fishing location. The time of day a bear could fish and its choice of location depended on its ability to gain and defend a profitable site. Fishing success was directly correlated with social status, but differences in success are probably unimportant in terms of individual fitness except when salmon are relatively scarce. Changes in encounter intensity over time had no detectable effect on fishing success. Salmon abundance, however, resulted in a further reduction of agonistic encounter intensity and an increase in nonagonistic encounters. Bear social relationships were governed largely by variations in resource abundance. Despite energetic and psychological costs imposed by the bear concentration on individual animals, salmon were evidently sufficiently numerous that these costs were outweighted by returns in protein. Dominance relationships at McNeil Falls did not correspond to predictions of classical dominance theory. This may have been partially attributable to the fact that bears in aggregations derive no benefits from tacit acceptance of subordinate roles; a bear's alternatives were to compete and gain access to food or, if unsuccessful, to try elsewhere. To pose the question if normally solitary bears can adapt behaviorally to efficiently exploit a localized source of food may have been inappropriate. Alternatively, bears can be viewed as occupying and defending areas akin to small territories, with their behavior explicable in terms of energetic costs and benefits based on variations in resource abundance.

Many Gopher Tortoise populations are in steep decline throughout Florida, and various measures have been attempted to curb the trend. One such measure is to relocate tortoises to protected recipient sites on private lands. The majority of private lands in Florida are used for cattle, however, production and the effect of cattle production on tortoises is not known. Here, I tested six parameters of tortoise behavior by monitoring 1403 gopher tortoises released at the Barthle Brothers Ranch, Pasco County Florida, between August 2009 and December 2012. The parameters tested were (1) burrow density, (2) burrow spacing, (3) burrow relocation, (4) body condition, (5) individual growth rate, and (6) recruitment (addition of young to the population). I used telemetry techniques to observe movement and burrow placement as it related to cattle activity and burrow impacts, and collected morphological data to determine changes in body condition and growth. I used burrow surveys and analyzed movement patterns to interpret the propensity for tortoises to place burrows where cattle may or may not congregate. Lastly, I investigated recruitment of juveniles into the population and followed the mortality of resident and relocated tortoises in all treatment plots. I found that burrow density, distance moved when relocating to new burrows, and avoidance of cattle were not distinguishably different within or between the plots. Burrow relocation, however, was more frequent outside the exclosures. The change in body condition did not differ between males and female or resident and relocated individuals. Females within the exclosure did not grow at a rate different than those outside the exclosure although translocated females grew faster than resident females. Densities of non-adult burrows inside the exclosures were not different then densities outside the exclosure. Eleven percent of tortoises relocated to the ranch died during the project. Although we have no evidence that cattle and tortoise cannot successfully coexist, a number of circumstances prevented rigorous testing of our hypotheses, predominately the failure of the silt fence used to enclose the treatment plots. Using a trespass-proof perimeter fence would allow a better assessment of the actual interaction between the cattle and tortoises and may shed new light on the lack of recruitment and the decline of juvenile tortoises relocated to the ranch. Without recruitment of individuals back into a population, or the persistent of reproducing adults within the population, any efforts to curb the downward trend in gopher tortoise numbers by relocating tortoises to actively grazed pasture is futile.