ABSTRACT Background: Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are found in nuts and seeds, salad dressings and vegetable oil and are prone to oxidation during storage and food preparation. Evidence supports that consumption of oxidized lipids promotes atherosclerosis and glucose intolerance in animal models. However there is a dearth of evidence with regard to the amount of oxidized lipids consumed and its association with parameters of adiposity and glucose homeostasis in humans. Objective: The objective of this study is to estimate the amount of oxidized lipids in common foods and the oxidized lipid consumption in the US population using the data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-06. The second objective of this study is to investigate if there is an association between consumption of oxidized lipids with markers of adiposity and glucose tolerance. Methods- Foods with possible high oxidized lipid content were selected from the NHANES food frequency questionnaire. Oxidized lipid content /Peroxide Values (PV) of these foods were determined from published values in the literature. Oxidized lipid consumption was stratified into tertiles to determine the relationship between consumption of oxidized lipids and markers of adiposity. Regression analysis was used to explore to the extent to which body fat % and HOMA- IR scores could be attributed to oxidized lipid intake. Results- The estimated mean daily consumption of oxidized lipids was 0.625 meq/kg of fat for the US population. Estimated mean consumption of oxidized lipids was significantly greater in men compared to women, in children compared to adults and among African Americans compared to other races. In both men and women it was observed that the markers of adiposity like body fat%, waist circumference, triceps skinfold decreased significantly with increased consumption of oxidized lipids. However in women (below 18 years) there was a significant increase in HOMA-IR with increased consumption of oxidized lipids. Conclusion- Increased consumption of oxidized lipids is associated with decreased fat mass but increased glucose intolerance in women, but not in men.

Biological membranes are mainly composed of two layers of lipids, various kinds of proteins and organic macromolecules, forming the protective barriers that separate the inner milieu of living cells from the environment. The possibility of penetrating the membrane is of great importance for biomedical applications. Recently, a lot of attention has been given to the mechanisms and the details of the interactions between the membrane and nanoparticles, as well as to the development of effective delivery strategies. A manipulation of the hydrophobicity of nanoparticles can facilitate the translocation through the membrane. Modifying the physical/chemical properties of the membrane through oxidation can also influence the delivery of nanoparticles or macromolecules into the cell. In this work, using coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, the passive translocation of nanoparticles with a size of about 1 nm and with tunable degrees of hydrophobicity through lipid membranes is studied. It is shown that a window of nanoparticle translocation with a sharp maximum is located at a certain hydrophobicity in between fully hydrophilic and fully hydrophobic characters. By combining direct simulations with umbrella sampling simulations, the free energy landscapes for nanoparticles covering a wide range of hydrophobicities are obtained. The directly observed translocation rate of the nanoparticles can be mapped to the mean escape rate through the calculated free energy landscapes, and the maximum of translocation can be related with the maximally flat free energy landscape. For nanoparticles with the balanced hydrophobicity, the bilayer forms a remaining barrier of a few kBT and can be spontaneously surmounted. Further investigations are conducted to explore the cooperative effects of a larger number of nanoparticles and their impact on membrane properties such as membrane permeability for solvent, the area per lipid, and the orientation order of lipid tails. By calculating the partition of nanoparticles between water and oil phases, the microscopic parameter, i.e. the hydrophobicity of nanoparticles, can be mapped to an experimentally accessible partition coefficient. The studies reveal a generic mechanism for spherical nanoparticles to overcome biological membrane-barriers without the need of biologically activated processes. Two oxidatively modified lipids are studied on coarse-grained level using molecular dynamics simulations. The findings support the view that lipid oxidation leads to a change of the lipid conformation: lipid tails tend to bend toward the lipid head-tail interface due to the presence of hydrophilic oxidized beads. This change in conformation can further influence structural properties, elasticity and membrane permeability: an increase of the area per lipid, accompanied with decrease of the membrane thickness and order parameter of the lipid tails; a sharp drop of stretching modulus; a significant increase of the membrane permeability for water. Oxidized lipid bilayers interacting with NPs of various degrees of hydrophobicity are further studied. The critical hydrophobicity corresponding to the maximum translocation rate of NPs, shifts towards the hydrophilic region, which coincides with the same decrease in percentage of the average hydrophobicity in the core of the membrane upon oxidation. Around the critical point of NPs' hydrophobicity, a significant increase of the translocation rate of NPs through the oxidized bilayers is observed, when compared to non-oxidized bilayers. This is associated with a deterioration of the free energy barrier for NPs inside the oxidized bilayers, resulting from oxidation effects. These findings are consistent with the studies of the mean escape rate through the free energy landscapes using Kramers theory. Regarding the membrane perturbation induced by NPs of various hydrophobicity, the data obtained with oxidized lipid bilayers present the same general trend as in the case of the non-oxidized lipid bilayer. These findings provide a better understanding of the interaction between NPs and oxidized lipid bilayers, and open a possibility to facilitate drug delivery.:1 Introduction 1 1.1 Lipid Bilayers 1 1.2 Oxidized Lipid Bilayers 2 1.3 Experimental Methodology 4 1.4 Lipid Models 5 1.5 The Lipid Bilayer Interacting with NPs 6 1.6 Thesis Overview 7 2 State of the art 9 2.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Lipid Bilayers 9 2.1.1 Equations of Motion and the Integrations of Equations of Motion 10 2.1.2 Interaction Potentials 12 2.1.3 Periodic Boundary Conditions 14 2.1.4 Barostats and Thermostats 15 2.2 Umbrella Sampling Simulation 19 2.2.1 The Basics of Umbrella Sampling Method 20 2.2.2 Analyzing Umbrella Sampling Results by WHAM 23 2.2.3 The Principle of Choosing Bias Potential 24 3 Lipid Membranes interacting with Nanoparticles of Various Degrees of Hydrophobicity 25 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Coarse-grained Model and Simulation Setups 27 3.3 Results and Discussions 31 3.3.1 NPs-membrane Interactions 31 3.3.2 NPs Translocation 33 3.3.3 Concentration Effect of NPs 35 3.3.4 The Effect of Hydrophobicity on Kinetic Pathways 38 3.3.5 Potential of Mean Force 39 3.3.6 Hydrophobicity Scale 41 3.3.7 Solvent Permeation and Membrane Perturbation Induced by NPs 45 3.4 Summary 47 4 Coarse-grained Model of Oxidized Lipids and their Interactions with NPs of Varying Hydrophobicities 51 4.1 Introduction 51 4.2 Coarse-grained Model and Simulation Details 52 4.3 Results and Discussions 54 4.3.1 Characterizing the Oxidized Lipid Membranes 54 4.3.2 Oxidized Lipid Membranes Interacting with NPs of Various Degrees of Hydrophobicity 59 4.4 Summary 65 5 Summary and Outlook 69