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A convenient method for testing and calibrating surface perfusion sensors has been developed. A phantom tissue model is used to mimic the non-directional blood flow of tissue perfusion. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was constructed in Fluent to design the phantom tissue and validate the experimental results. The phantom perfusion system was used with a perfusion sensor based on the clearance of thermal energy. A heat flux gage measures the heat flux response of tissue when a thermal event (convective cooling) is applied. The blood perfusion and contact resistance are estimated by a parameter estimation code. From the experimental and analytical results, it was concluded that the probe displayed good measurement repeatability and sensitivity. The experimental perfusion measurements in the tissue were in good agreement with those of the CFD models and demonstrated the value of phantom tissue system. This simple, cost effective, and noninvasive convective blood perfusion system was then tested in animal models. The perfusion system was evaluated for repeatability and sensitivity using isolated rat liver and exposed rat kidney tests. Perfusion in the isolated liver tests was varied by controlling the flow of the perfusate into the liver, and the perfusion in the exposed kidney tests was varied by temporarily occluding blood flow through the renal artery and vein. The perfusion estimated by the convective perfusion probe was in good agreement with that of the metered flow of perfusate into the liver model. The liver tests indicated that the probe can be used to detect small changes in perfusion (0.005 ml/ml/s). The probe qualitatively tracked the changes in the perfusion in kidney model due to occlusion of the renal artery and vein. / Ph. D.

Blood perfusion is the local, non-directional blood flow through tissue. It is measured as the volumetric flow rate of blood through a given volume of tissue. One method that has been developed for measuring blood perfusion is a probe that measures the temperature response of the tissue when a thermal event is applied. From the temperature response, the blood perfusion and contact resistance can be estimated by comparing the experimental response to a predicted response, and employing Gaussian minimization techniques to estimate the blood perfusion and contact resistance. The objective of this research was to assess the measurement repeatability and sensitivity of the blood perfusion probe by testing the probe on phantom tissue, such that the effects of physiologic or pathologic conditions on the blood perfusion could be eliminated. Another objective was to conduct a preliminary in vivo study using rats for the purpose of establishing proper experimental protocols for future testing of the blood perfusion probe. A phantom tissue test stand comprised of porous material and water to simulate tissue and blood, respectively, was constructed for the phantom study. Inlet flow rates into the porous media ranging between 0 cc/min and 30 cc/min were tested. To test the measurement repeatability 7 flow rates (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 cc/min) were tested on two different days. To test the measurement sensitivity of the probe, flow rates between 0 and 10 cc/min, and 15 and 20 cc/min were tested at intervals of 1 cc/min. From the phantom study it was concluded that the probe displayed good measurement repeatability, as the trend in perfusion as a function of inlet flow rates for both days was found to be the same. It was also found that the data collected using the probe yielded significantly different perfusion estimates for different flow rates, as statistical analyses show that the average perfusion differences between flow rates are truly independent within a 90% confidence interval, for flow differences above 4 cc/min. It was found that for flow rates below 4 cc/min the probe sensitivity was significantly reduced. For the in vivo study it was concluded that the probe can be used to obtain estimates of perfusion from rats. This preliminary study also served to establish proper experimental protocols for future tests. / Master of Science

Fatigue crack growth in engineered structures reduces the structures load carrying capacity and will eventually lead to failure. Cycles required to grow a crack from an initial length to the critical length is called the fatigue fracture life. In this thesis, five different methods for analyzing the fatigue fracture life of a center cracked plate were compared to experimental data previously collected by C.M. Hudson in a 1969 NASA report studying the R-ratio effects on crack growth in 7075-T6 aluminum alloy. The Paris, Walker, and Forman fatigue crack growth models were fit the experimental data. The Walker equation best fit the data since it incorporated R-ratio effects and had a similar Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) compared to the other models. There was insufficient data in the unstable region of crack growth to adequately fit the Forman equation. Analytical models were used as a baseline for all fatigue fracture life comparisons. Life estimates from AFGROW and finite elements with mid-side nodes moved to their quarter point location compared very with the analytical model with errors less than 3%. The Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT) was selected as a method for crack propagation along a predefined path. Stress intensity factors (SIFs) for shorter crack lengths were found to be low, resulting in an overestimated life of about 8%. The eXtended Finite Element Method with Phantom Nodes (XFEM-PN) was used, allowing crack propagation along a solution dependent path, independent of the mesh. Low SIFs throughout growth resulted in life estimates 20% too large. All finite element analyses were performed in Abaqus 6-13.3. An integrated polynomial method was developed for calculating life based on Abaqus' results, leading to coarser meshes with answers closer to the analytical estimate. None of the five methods for estimating life compared well with the experimental data, with analytical errors on life ranging from 10-20%. These errors were attributed to the limited number of crack growth experiments run at each R-ratio, and the large variability typically seen in growth rates. Monte Carlo simulations were run to estimate the distribution on life. It was shown that material constants in the Walker model must be selected based on their interrelation with a multivariate normal probability density function. Both analytical and XFEM-PN simulations had similar coefficients of variation on life of approximately 3% with similar normal distributions. It was concluded that Abaqus' XFEM-PN is a reasonable means of estimating fatigue fracture life and its variation, and this method could be extended to other geometries and three-dimensional analyses. / Master of Science

A non-invasive blood perfusion system has been developed and tested in a phantom tissue and an animal model. The system uses a small sensor with a laminated flat thermocouple to measure the heat transfer response to an arbitrary thermal event (convective or conductive) imposed on the tissue surface. Blood perfusion and contact resistance are estimated by comparing heat flux data with a mathematical model of the tissue. The perfusion system was evaluated for repeatability and sensitivity using both a phantom tissue test stand and exposed rat liver tests. Perfusion in the phantom tissue tests was varied by controlling the flow of water into the phantom tissue test section, and the perfusion in the exposed liver tests was varied by temporarily occluding blood flow through the portal vein. The phantom tissue tests indicated that the probe can be used to detect small changes in perfusion (0.009 ml/ml/s). The probe qualitatively tracked the changes in the perfusion of the liver model due to occlusion of the portal vein. / Master of Science

The Thermoelectric Perfusion Probe is a completely electronic system that cyclically heats and cools tissue to measure blood perfusion. The probe produces the thermal event with a thermoelectric cooler and then measures the resulting heat flux and temperatures: the arterial temperature and the sensor temperature (the temperature between the heat flux gage and the skin). The Thermoelectric Perfusion Probe was validated and calibrated on a phantom tissue test stand, a system that simulates perfusion with known, controlled flow. With the new pressed sensor technology, a thermocouple sealed to a heat flux gage, the sensor temperature and the heat flux are simultaneously recorded. The pressed sensor tests validated the program used to predict perfusion for the Thermoelectric Perfusion Probe. This perfusion estimation program can determine the tissues perfusion regardless of how the thermal event is created (i.e. convective cooling, convective heating, conductive heating). Based on experimentation, the Thermoelectric Perfusion Probe displays good repeatability and sensitivity for continuously measuring perfusion. The sensitivity and repeatability of the Thermoelectric Perfusion Probe was proven when the perfusion estimates were compared to the perfusion estimates predicted by the Convective Perfusion Probe, a previously validated perfusion probe, and the CFD Flow Model, a computational model of the phantom tissue test stand. / Master of Science

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo propor um modelo envolvendo subtração digital de imagens obtidas a diferentes níveis de energia do feixe de raios X, para possibilitar a detecção de lesões malignas da mama que, no modo tradicional de realização do exame, seriam totalmente camufladas quando superpostas por tecido de absorção semelhante. A pesquisa tem aplicação mais direcionada às avaliações de imagens referentes aos casos de mamas densas, que apresentam tradicionalmente baixo contraste em função da presença maior de tecido fibroglandular de alta densidade. Para possibilitar essa investigação, a pesquisa trabalha com a geração de imagens através de simulação computacional dos principais tecidos mamários envolvidos adiposo, fibroglandular e o próprio carcinoma. Por esse procedimento, é possível observar o comportamento das variações de níveis de cinza nas imagens mamográficas a partir dos coeficientes de absorção daqueles tecidos, considerados com diferentes espessuras e submetidos a diferentes valores de energia, dentro da faixa típica utilizada no exame mamográfico. Foi considerada para referência do procedimento uma mama comprimida totalizando 4,5 cm de espessura total. Os resultados apontaram basicamente que: (a) se o carcinoma tiver espessura menor que 0,8 cm, aparentemente, com exposição na faixa de 14 a 17 keV e com pequena variação de energia na aquisição da segunda imagem sua visualização é totalmente comprometida quando camuflado por tecido fibroso; (b) se o carcinoma tiver espessura maior que 0,4 cm, possivelmente será detectado, mesmo que camuflado por tecido fibroso, com exposição na faixa de 19 a 25 keV; (c) para carcinomas camuflados, de espessura entre 0,4 e 2,0 cm, considerando diferença maior de energias na aquisição das imagens, a realização do procedimento proposto permitirá destacá-los na imagem resultante da subtração digital entre imagens produzidas por exposições de 14 a 22 keV, representando, portanto, uma nova ferramenta metodológica para possibilitar e identificar lesões malignas que não seriam detectadas no exame típico, sobretudo em casos de mamas densas. / This work intends to propose a model involving subtraction of digital images obtained at different levels of energy in the X-ray beam, to permit the detection of malign lesions of the breast that in the traditional way of performing the examination, would be completely hidden when overlapped by tissue of similar absorption. The research has more directed application to the evaluations of referring images to the cases of dense breasts that traditionally present low contrast in function of the tissue presence biggest to fibrousglandular of high density. In order to make possible this investigation, the research works with the generation of images by computational simulation of main involved mammary tissues - adipose, fibrousglandular and the proper carcinoma. For this procedure, it is possible to observe the behavior of the variations of gray levels in the mammographic images from the coefficients of absorption of those tissues, considered with different thicknesses and submitted to different values of energy, inside of the used typical band in the mammographic examination. A compressed breast was considered for reference of the procedure totalizing 4,5 cm of total thickness. The results had pointed basically that: (a) if the carcinoma will have lesser thickness that 0,8 cm, apparently, with exposition in the band of 14 to 17 keV and with small variation of the energy in the second image acquisition, its visualization is quite damaged when masked for fibrous tissue; (b) if the carcinoma will have bigger thickness that 0,4 cm, will possibly be detected, even masked for fibrous tissue, with exposition in the band of 19 to 25 keV; (c) for masked carcinomas, with thickness between 0,4 and 2,0 cm, considering larger difference of energies in the acquisition of the images, the accomplishment of the proposed procedure will allow to highlight them in the resultant image of the digital subtraction among images produced by expositions of 14 to 22 keV, representing, therefore, a new methodological tool to make possible and identify malign lesions that would not be detected in the typical examination, especially in cases of dense breasts.

Dada a dificuldade de avaliação das imagens mamográficas no rastreamento do câncer de mama e a necessidade de precisão diagnóstica, tornou-se estimulante a luta pelo desenvolvimento de ferramentas computacionais que auxiliam esse processo, denominadas de esquemas de Computer-aided detection/diagnosis (CADe/CADx). Apresenta-se como um desafio para a comunidade científica a padronização dos critérios de avaliação destes esquemas a partir de bancos de imagens amplos e diversificados que representem casos tanto de benignidade quanto os de malignidade. Considerando este aspecto, o presente trabalho consiste no desenvolvimento de um objeto simulador (phantom) de mama capaz de gerar diversos padrões de imagens obtidos pela variação aleatória de tamanho, forma, contraste e distribuição de lesões. Para garantir imagens mais realistas, o phantom foi confeccionado em camadas compostas por filme de PVC submerso em parafina gel em uma distribuição não uniforme. Essa distribuição permite simular regiões heterogeneamente densas, de acordo com a concentração do material. A estimativa da densidade percentual da mama simulada foi obtida com a ajuda do software LIBRA®, para gerar imagens nas quatro categorias de classificação de densidades BI-RADS®. Os nódulos foram simulados usando dois modelos tridimensionais impressos em 3D, um para lesões circunscritas e outro para espiculadas. Para as microcalcificações, foi utilizada a hidroxiapatita granulada distribuída em quatro clusters que representam casos comumente encontrados em mamas reais. Alternativamente, uma ferramenta computacional foi desenvolvida para a inserção das lesões nas imagens, de acordo com a localização e intensidade escolhidas. As características do phantom foram estudadas comparando os coeficientes de atenuação dos materiais utilizados e dos tecidos mamários. Também textura e ruído das imagens do phantom foram comparados em relação aos das imagens clínicas. A partir da base de imagens formada, um protótipo de esquema CADx foi avaliado. Os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente a partir de curvas ROC e comparados com os obtidos nos testes realizados com imagens clínicas. Concluiu-se que o phantom desenvolvido neste trabalho permitiu gerar um padrão de imagem próximo ao obtido em mamografias reais e apropriado ao suprimento da base de imagens para validação dos sistemas CADx. / The need for diagnostic accuracy in breast cancer screening has motivated the use of computational schemes known as computer-aided detection/diagnosis (CAD/CADx). However, standardization of the evaluation criteria regarding these schemes is still a challenge, since they depend on the access to large and diversified image databases representing both benign and malignant cases. With this feature in view, this work aimed at the development of a structured breast phantom able to generate many images patterns achieved not only by the variation of size, shape, contrast but also by mainly the distribution of simulated lesions. To guarantee the realism of the images, the phantom was made in layers composed by PVC film submerged in paraffin gel with a non-uniform distribution. Such distribution allowed simulating more or less dense regions, according to the material concentration. The percent density estimative of the simulated breast was determined with the LIBRA® software, resulting in the four categories of BIRADS® density classification. Nodules were simulated using two 3D printed models, one for circumscribed and another for spiculated lesions. For simulating microcalcifications, granulated hydroxyapatite was used distributed in four clusters. Alternatively, a computational tool was developed for the insertion of lesions into the images, according to the location and intensity chosen. Phantom characteristics were studied comparing attenuation coefficients of the materials used and breast tissues. The texture and noise of the phantom images were also compared in relation to the clinical ones. From the image database created, a CADx system was evaluated considering its modules of nodule classification and detection of microcalcifications. The results were analyzed statistically from ROC curves and compared with those usually obtained in clinical imaging tests. We concluded that the phantom developed in this work allowed to generate an image pattern similar to that obtained in real mammograms and suitable for supplying an image database to be used as a ground truth for CAD and CADx schemes validation/evaluation.