No description available.

No description available.

Exposure to traffic pollution has become an increasing concern to public health. A number of studies have demonstrated that the air people breathe in while in transportation is particularly unsafe due to the high concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), suspended particles (PM10, PM2.5 and PM1) and ultrafine particles (UFPs). Some studies have suggested that peak exposures of approximately one hour- a typical time spent in a transport micro-environment- may have more damaging health effects than the 24- hour sampling times current standards apply to Despite the widespread interest in health effects from exposure to traffic pollutants, there is a distinct lack of research of this kind in New Zealand. The research presented in this thesis was designed to assess the effect of traffic emissions on personal exposure. More specifically, this project intended to examine how exposures differed on different modes of transport and also to investigate the extent to which transport micro-environments such as car parks, bus stops and metro stations contributed to personal exposure levels. This study is the first of its type in New Zealand, which simultaneously monitored CO, PM and UFP concentrations in the transport micro-environment. Vehicular traffic emissions were shown to be a significant source of air pollution in populated urban areas, especially in the transport microenvironment. This results of this study showed that the mode of transport is a significant determinant of personal exposure to pollutants. The information gathered indicated slightly different results for Christchurch and Auckland, possibly due to variations in background levels, traffic counts and meteorological conditions at the time of monitoring. Results from the research also showed that built transport microenvironments could experience extremely high levels of pollutant exposures. Although commuters spend a relatively short time in such environments, such short-term peak exposures could contribute significantly to adverse health effects. The results presented here have relevance for both public health and for policies aimed at reducing human exposures to traffic-related air pollution. It is imperative to incorporate policies which ensure that such built environments are as safe as possible in terms of keeping exposure levels at a minimum.

This study aimed to investigate various aspects of cyclist exposure to common urban air pollutants, including CO, PM10, PM2.5, PM1.0 and UFPs. The initial part of the study compared cyclist exposure to that of other transport modes, while the second part addressed the implications of route choice. The final part analysed the effect of proximity to traffic. Data was collected in Christchurch and Auckland cities over a nine week period, with a total of 53 inter-modal and 7 separate cyclist sampling runs completed. Mobile sampling was conducted using a collection of instruments in four portable kits. Fixed-site meteorological data was used to find associations between pollutants and temperature and wind speed. Spatial patterns were also considered by means of time-series comparative graphs and colour-coded pollutant concentration GPS mapping. The cyclist mode was up to 61% less exposed than the car for primary pollutants (CO and UFPs), but up to 26% more exposed for PM1.0-10. The bus was generally the most exposed for all pollutants apart from CO. The effect of route choice was substantial, with the off-road cyclist route recording a reduction of 31% for CO and PM1.0, and 53% for UFPs while PM10 was 6%. At a distance of 7 m from traffic, exposure dropped by 30% (UFPs), 22% (CO) and 14% (PM2.5). At 19 m, concentrations decreased a further 17%, 13% and 8%, respectively. When moving much further away from traffic (~700 m), the effect was far less pronounced and no difference was observed for CO past 19 m. Conclusions suggest that for most pollutants studied, the cyclist mode faces much lower exposure than other modes, especially when traveling through backstreets and cycle tracks. Significant exposure reductions can also be made when only a very small distance away from traffic emissions. This has positive implications for health, sustainable city planning and active-mode transport promotion.

No description available.

This thesis examines the contention that effective regulation has as much to do with the capacity for co-operation between inter-dependent actors as it has to do with the state's capacity for control. This contention, and the alternative conception of regulation that it implies, is significant because it is associated with a tension that runs through many areas of public policy: does cooperation between the public and the private, or between the regulators and the regulated, lead to effective collective action or to regulatory capture? Following a conceptual examination of the nature of regulation and implementation, the thesis considers the explanatory value of two different perspectives on cooperation and collective action: the rational choice perspective, which suggests that the behaviour of economically responsive actors is shaped by the incentives for cooperation that stem from their interdependence, and the institutional perspective, which contends that as particular forms of behaviour emerge, evolve and become institutionalised, so the implementation process becomes embedded in particular institutional structures that enable the continuation of existing approaches whilst restricting the potential for change. In seeking to examine the explanatory value of these perspectives, the thesis considers the factors shaping the implementation of two frameworks of environmental regulation, namely the frameworks of Integrated Pollution Control and Local Air Pollution Control as applied in England and Wales. Based on a comparative analysis of the factors that shape the nature and influence of each implementation process, the thesis concludes that the explanatory value of the rational choice perspective is fundamentally limited and that the value of the institutional perspective is much more complete. On this basis, the thesis proposes an institutional perspective on regulation and implementation that recognises the significance of resource inter-dependencies and the ways in which cooperative approaches can increase the prospects for collective action whilst reducing the accountability and the manageability of the implementation process. As is discussed, this conclusion has significant implications for broader debates on regulation and governance.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.