Stakeholders increasingly have a heightened expectation of organisational commitment to good environmental and societal practice. Proponents of the link between environmental and financial performance have argued that pollution reduction provides future cost savings by increasing efficiency, reducing compliance costs, and minimising future liabilities. Environmental management systems such as BS EN ISO 14001:1996 or the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) do not require organisations to comment on overall environmental performance. BS EN ISO 14001: 1996 simply advocates that the organisation should have viewed each particular function of the business process and applied a self- formulated quantitative/qualitative analysis to the function in question, providing no incentive to add a level of independently verifiable transparency to the analysis process. This thesis investigates whether it is possible to develop an environmental management system that is capable of delivering a quantitative social/economic statement based on the pollutant aspects/effects of the organisation. A model for quantitative pollution management (QPM) is developed, and a scoring mechanism is defined which enables an indicator of pollution performance to be derived. This indicator reviews the organisation as a whole system, as well as commenting on its constituent parts. The indicator is based upon evaluation of five areas, those of management /leadership, inputs, controls, activities, and outputs. The model is tested in industry by an audit of a manufacturing organisation in South Wales, and a numeric QPM indicator is derived. The numeric QPM indicator is subsequently considered by means of a qualitative interpretation of the quantitative indicator score. The qualitative interpretation is then considered against the impression of the organisation gained by the author during the conduct of the audit. Potential future work in relation to QPM is considered, and the possible application of the concepts of fuzzy logic to QPM is given.

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Environmental problems, and human attempts to manage them, can be conceptualised as evolutionary complex systems, involving interlinked processes of physical, knowledge, technological, institutional, perceptual and behavioural change. Issues such as traffic pollution and asthma may be viewed as emergent systems, embedded within overlapping hierarchical systems. A distinction may be made beween changes in physical systems (“physical emergence”), changes in human knowledge about those systems (“knowledge emergence”) and changes in human perceptions (“perceptual emergence”). While processes of physical and knowledge emergence are important, it is through perceptual emergence that a phenomenon comes to be regarded as a “problem” or “issue”, potentially leading to changes in policy, institutional arrangements or behaviour. Physical changes may have impacts on human beings, which may be measurable and predictable in the mass. However, the outcome of such an impact, from the point of view of a particular individual, is mediated by that individual’s perception, which is dictated by his or her personal experience, understanding and interests (“appreciative system”). These perceptions in turn will determine the individual’s behaviour, which may feed back into the collective appreciative system, policy system, and the base physical system. The distinction between policy based on measurement and control of impacts and individual perceptions and behaviour dependent on outcomes leads to incongruity between the “institutional” and “individual” views of an issue. The thesis investigates this incongruity in the case of the “traffic pollution and asthma” emergent system. The perceptions of “institutional” and “individual” actors involved in the system were elicited by means of unstructured and semi-structured interviews, and analysed in terms of a number of key concepts (perceptions of measurement, risk and spatiality) across a number of dimensions (different actors in the same location, the same hierarchical position in different locations, and between a specific institution and individuals). The empirical investigation demonstrates differences between multiple institutions managing different aspects of the problem and a lack of understanding and communication between institutions and individuals, despite the fact that an expressed aim of policy in this area is directed at communicating with individuals with the intention of changing individual behaviour.

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Descreve-se o método PIXE como uma técnica não destrutiva na análise quantitativa de traços de elementos em amostras de aerossol atmosférico. Fundamenta-se este método através do estudo da ionização de camadas internas de átonos por partículas carregadas e da secção de choque de produção de raios-X consequente do processo de ionização. A seguir são apresentados os conjuntos de impactadores em cascata utilizados pelo Grupo de Estudo de Poluição do Ar - IFUSP e pelo Grupo da FSU, na coleta de amostras de aerossol Atmosférico na cidade de Brasília, D.F.. São dadas. as características geométricas de cada conjunto e suas condições de funcionamento durante as amostragens. Discutem-se os resultados obtidos na análise PIXE das amostras provenientes dos dois conjuntos de impactadores procurando-se estabelecer correlações entre variações nas concentrações de mesmos elementos detectados nos dois conjuntos de impactadores. São discutidas possíveis causas que podem afetar o comportamento de dois conjuntos de impactadores e influir na análise de resultados obtidos pelo método PIXE. Para os casos em que há concordância nos resultados obtidos nas análises das amostras de aerossol atmosférico coletadas com impactadores em cascata e amostrador de filtro sequencial (apêndice 1) procura-se associar possíveis fontes de emissão de particulado na época das amostragens. Na complementação do método PIXE sugere-se a substituição do detector de Si (Li) por um espectrógrafo de cristal convexo. / The PIXE is described as a non destructive technique in the quantitative trace elimental analysis of aerossol atmospheric samples. The method is justified through the investigation of inner-shell ionization of atoms by charged particles and X-ray production cross section due the ionization process. Next are presented the sets of cascade impactors used during the aerossol sampling in Brasilia, Goiás, by the Group of Air Pollution Research - IFUSP and Air Chemistry Group - Oceanography Department - FSU. Dimensions of these two sets of impactors and conditions during the sampling are included in this work The results obtained from the analysis of the two sets of impactors are discussed correlating them with the variations in the amount of elements present in the samples. Possible causes changing the behavior of those impactors and can affect the analysis of results obtained by PIXE method are discussed. Results from impactors that are compatible with STREAKER analysis are interpreted according to possible emission sources of particulate matter in the atmosphere. In the implementation of PIXE apparatus the substitution of Si(Li) detector by a convex crystal X-ray spectrograph is suggested.

Two open wet oxidation methods are described for the digestion of selected seafoods prior to total mercury determination using a cold vapour atomic absorption spectrophotometric technique. The first employs two acids (i.e. HNO3 and H2SO4) and two oxidants (i.e. KMnO4 and K2S2O8), and is suitable for use with a Perkin-Elmer Mercury Analysis System (MAS) and a Perkin-Elmer Mercury Analyzer 50A (MA). Excellent recoveries were obtained for mussel samples spiked with various quantities of inorganic mercury [Hg(N03)2]. For the optimum part of the calibration curve of the MAS (0.1–0.7 μg/ml Hg), the percentage recovery (%R) fluctuated between 98.26 and 101.98. The limit of detection (LOD) was calculated to be 18.7 ng of mercury per sample analysed and sensitivity of 0.011 μg of mercury was obtained. Results for fish samples determined with both units showed excellent agreement and precision (RSD = 3.23 -4.25). However, the MA was found inadequate for the determination of the low mercury levels encountered with the mussel samples. It was shown that a desiccant assembly must be installed whenever samples with low mercury content are analysed, i.e. less than 0.5 μg per sample digested.

Chapter 1.This chapter investigates the direct behavioral impact of information-based regulations by examining the effect of ozone alerts on cycling trips in Sydney. Moreover, the dynamics of individuals' response is studied by examining the behavioral impact of two successive day ozone alerts on cycling demand. A common problem in estimating direct avoidance behavior is that an increase in the pollution level could be an endogenous response to alerts. While controlling for the endogenous effect of alerts and air quality, results show that cycling trips decrease by 35 percent in response to a smog alert. When alerts are issued for two successive days, however, individuals appear to neglect the second day alerts. Our findings also indicate that ozone alerts induce one and half times larger impacts on weekends compared to weekdays. These patterns suggest that the cost of cycling substitution for commuter goals is higher than leisure goals. Furthermore, the cost of intertemporally avoiding cycling is increasing over time. Chapter 2. If decisions with lasting consequences are influenced by extraneous or transient factors then welfare can be damaged. This chapter investigates the impact of outdoor temperature on high-stakes decisions (immigration adjudications) made by professional decision-makers (US immigration judges). In our preferred specification, which includes spatial, temporal and judge fixed effects, and controls for various potential confounders, a 10 F degree increase in case-day temperature reduces positive decisions by 6.55%. This is despite judgements being made indoors, `protected' by climate-control. Results are consistent with established links from temperature to mood and risk appetite and have important implications for evaluating the welfare-burden of climate change. Chapter 3. The carbon tax in the Canadian province of British Columbia is widely-regarded as a `poster child' application of market-based methods to address greenhouse gas emissions. However the implications for local air quality have been ignored. Using synthetic control and difference-in-difference methods, in this chapter we evidence a causal link from carbon tax implementation and level to increased nitrogen oxides NOx and ultra-fine particulates PM_2.5 pollution problems in Vancouver, the province's largest city. We provide evidence consistent with the mechanism working through induced switching from gasoline to diesel vehicles. The results prove highly robust to inclusion of a wide set of controls in various combinations, alternative specifications, and satisfy a set of falsification checks. The analysis points to the possibility of negative secondary effects of climate policies, contrary to the usual presumption that secondary benefits are inevitably positive.

M.Sc. / This study is an investigation of environmental impacts caused by airborne fluorides around an industrial uranium and chemical facility in South Africa, the Necsa Pelindaba site. The literature study in Chapter 2 illustrates that industrial atmospheric fluoride emissions can have negative environmental impacts, including accumulation in surface soil horizons, necrosis in leaves, and fluorosis in plants and animals. Fluorides from this site are from two sources – stacks and evaporation pans. Samples to measure fluoride concentration in air, soil and vegetation and deposition rate were taken and analysed from February to August 2007. Standard analytical methods were used for the analysis of fluorides in all samples. Evaluation of historical environmental monitoring at Pelindaba showed that stack emissions were high in the year 2002 followed by a dramatic decrease in 2003 and 2004. In 2005, there was a sharp increase in emissions, with further slight increases until August 2007. For all media and sample types taken (air concentration, deposition, soil and vegetation), samples from nearby the evaporation pans had the highest fluoride concentrations. Results from sampling sites close to the stacks were lower, but still well above off-campus background sites, and above values from Pelindaba sites distant from the stacks. Fluoride concentrations in animal bones from previous studies done at the site showed enhanced fluoride concentrations compared to control samples. The project hypothesis was that fluoride emissions from Necsa Pelindaba site do not have a negative impact on the environment. This hypothesis is proven correct to the extent that no off-site adverse impacts or concentrations were observed. Limited on-campus impacts were observed localised around the evaporation pans and to a lesser extent around the stacks. Airborne fluoride concentration values around the pans only were above the South African guideline values. Deposition values were highest around the pans. The only visible leaf damage attributable to fluoride was on a Karee tree ~50 m from the edge of the pan. Soil fluoride concentrations from the current study were within the range of natural fluoride concentrations in soil. Despite evidence of local deposition, there was no evidence of fluoride accumulation in surface or subsurface soils. No impacts were observed elsewhere around the site or off-site. Based on the results of this work, fluoride emissions from the stacks do not pose a threat to the environment, provided that efficiency of the gas scrubbing equipment is maintained at current levels. Emissions from the pans pose a minor localised problem that nevertheless requires investigation and mitigation.

Over the past decade there has been a substantial increase in evidence suggesting an increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes from ambient air pollution exposure. However, there is yet to be enough convincing evidence to confirm a causal link between specific air pollutants and adverse pregnancy outcomes. The objective of this project was to address the paucity of evidence from the UK on the risk from air pollution in pregnancy. The research aim was to investigate the effects of ambient air pollution on adverse pregnancy outcomes using retrospective birth outcome data from the ‘North West Perinatal Survey Unit’ (NWPSU) during the period 2004 to 2008.In addition, primarily to determine the most appropriate exposure estimation method, a prospective comparison study (n=85) was performed to compare personal measurements of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and specifically nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) with commonly used exposure estimation techniques. This study informed two further studies which quantified the effects from air pollution in pregnancy using a large retrospective cohort from the NWPSU. The first, investigated the effects of maternal residential proximity to major roads on low birthweight (LBW), small for gestational age (SGA) and preterm birth (PTB). The second, investigated the effects of NOx, NO₂, carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀) based on estimates from a novel spatio-temporal air pollution model and stationary monitor sites on SGA, PTB and mean birth weight change. Linear and logistic regression models were used to quantify the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes from living in close proximity to a major road and to specific ambient pollutants. Odds ratio (OR) associations and mean birth weight change were calculated for each of the pollutants with exposure averaged over the entire pregnancy and for specific pregnancy periods to establish critical windows of exposure. Models were adjusted for maternal age, ethnicity, parity, socio-economic status, birth season, body mass index and smoking. No statistically significant associations were found between living <200m from a major road and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Based on the spatio-temporal modelled air pollution estimates, an increased risk of SGA was found in later pregnancy with NO₂ (OR=1.14, 95%CI= 1.00-1.30), CO (OR=1.21, 1.02-1.42), PM₂.₅ (OR=1.10, 1.00-1.21) and PM₁₀ (OR=1.12, 1.00-1.25). This study provides additional evidence that women exposed to high air pollution concentrations in pregnancy are at an increased risk of an SGA birth, but not for PTB. However, there was no evidence of an effect on SGA for exposures below the current legal air quality limits.

No description available.