Species traits, including but not exclusive to bark thickness and texture, sprouting ability, and litter bulk density and chemistry, may be related to a stem's potential to withstand potential heating from wildland fire. Trees exhibiting similarities for these properties and others may be classified into two broad functional groups: pyrophytes and pyrophobes. To our knowledge, few research studies have been conducted to determine how prescribed fires may affect wood quality of merchantable tree species in the Appalachian Mountains. Understanding potential relationships between wounding and fire tolerance may assist prescribed fire managers as they seek to promote and expand the use of prescribed fire for management purposes. To investigate this issue, six locations on the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia, that had been subjected to one or two mixed intensity and severity prescribed fires since 2012 were selected for stand inventory in 2021. Overstory trees within these burned locations and adjacent, unburned locations were measured and graded using variable radius sampling, and additional landscape features and physiographic factors, such as aspect, elevation, and slope percentage, were also recorded at each variable radius sampling location. The most common, commercially valuable deciduous species encountered were red maple (Acer rubrum) (17.5%), white oak (Quercus alba) (9.8%), chestnut oak (Quercus montana) (32.8%), and northern red oak (Quercus rubra) (39.9%). Using field measurements and tree grades, the total number and types of wounds, potential volume loss, charring, basal area, and diameters at breast height (DBH) were compared by species, burn status (burn or control), and the number of burns. Overall, A. rubrum and Q. rubra comprised 93% of the total trees exhibiting volume loss from wounds in the burned locations. However, total volume loss only constituted about 3% of the bottommost 4.9 m log. Trees in the burned locations experiencing volume loss differed significantly between species (p=0.0294) with Q. rubra constituting 60% of volume loss trees. In burned and control plots, A. rubrum was the most commonly wounded tree with 43.5% of trees having at least one wound. Cat face and oval wounds were the only wound types resulting in volume loss. Felling and milling stems identified in this study as having potential volume loss from any fire-influenced wounds would be valuable. Furthermore, assessing the potential impact of outer bark char resulting from prescribed fires would be desired to better understand if charring constitutes any potential internal damage to stems. Deploying a similar, field-scale experiment on areas with varying fire frequencies and intensities would be useful to determine how wood quality may be affected after several prescribed burns. / Master of Science / Prescribed fire is a cultural land management practice used historically and currently in many locations around the world. These burns have been and are currently conducted for many reasons, including wildlife habitat management, hazardous fuel reduction, and vegetation control. Trees have innate characteristics that increase potential resistance and resilience to fire damage, however, these characteristics can vary depending on tree species and tree age. These characteristics may include, but are not limited to, bark thickness and texture, litter chemistry, leaf shape, and a species' resprouting strategy. Prescribed fire is often used in conjunction with other forest management techniques (i.e. herbicides, thinning) in locations where timber value is a management priority, therefore it is important to understand how prescribed fire may affect the growth and quality of merchantable timber species. Few studies have focused on potential wood quality issues posed by the use of prescribed fire in the Appalachian Mountains. Determining if prescribed fires affect wood quality may provide land managers, in many locations, with information that may aid their selection of desired management practices and priorities. To help address this knowledge gap, a research study was designed and conducted to investigate these issues for the following merchantable timber species in six burned and adjacent, unburned locations of the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia: red maple (Acer rubrum), white oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak (Q. montana), and northern red oak (Q. rubra). The results show that one or two mixed intensity and severity prescribed fires, implemented since 2012, resulted in an overall volume loss of 3% from the bottommost 4.9 m log, therefore prescribed fire did not cause a significant reduction in total volume. Two main species, A. rubrum and Q. rubra, comprised 93% of the trees with wounds resulting in volume loss. However, Q. rubra alone constituted 60% of trees with volume loss wounds. The results also show that A. rubrum was the most commonly wounded tree with 43.5% having at least one wound. Additional research is warranted to more fully understand these dynamics, including sampling locations that have experienced more prescribed fires and fires with different intensities and milling wounded trees and charred trees located in burned locations.

Master of Science / Division of Biology / David A. Haukos / Sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) is an invasive forb that reduces native grass and forb abundance in tall-grass prairie by up to 92%. Controlling invasions is difficult because traditional land management tools used in the Flint Hills, broad spectrum herbicides, spring prescribed fire, and cattle grazing, are ineffective against sericea. Recent research has demonstrated, however, that mid- and late summer prescribed fire and spring fire with early season grazing by steers followed by late season grazing by sheep are effective at reducing sericea whole plant mass, number of seeds produced, and seed mass. Field results were from two separate experiments conducted in tall-grass prairie study sites in the Flint Hills. On a Geary County, Kansas, study site, the utility of 1) spring fire (control), 2) mid-summer fire, and 3) late summer fire on sericea control were compared. On a Woodson County, Kansas, study site, the utility of 1) spring fire with early season steer grazing followed by rest (control) and 2) spring fire with early season steer grazing and late season sheep grazing on sericea control were compared. At the same study sites, I measured responses by the native wildlife community to use of summer fire and sheep grazing, relative to their controls, to manage sericea lespedeza. Specifically, my objectives were to compare grassland songbird density, grassland songbird nest survival, and grassland butterfly species composition and density among treatments at both study sites. I also related patterns in the vegetation community of each treatment for each study site to respective patterns in grassland bird and butterfly communities. Within study sites, density, nest density, and nest success of grassland bird communities responded similarly to treatments and controls, with the exception that densities of Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savanarrum) were 3.4- and 2.2-fold greater in mid- and late summer fire plots than spring fire plots, respectively, in the Geary County study site. Species compositions of butterfly communities were similar across treatments within experiments, but grassland specialist species comprised only 8.6 and 1.2% of all butterfly observations in the Geary County and Woodson County experiments, respectively. Grassland specialist butterfly species may benefit from summer fire, as their nectar sources were more abundant in Summer Fire plots than Spring Fire plots. Overall, within each experiment, grassland bird and butterfly communities were similar across treatments, suggesting that treatments did not negatively affect grassland songbird and butterfly communities. I additionally demonstrated that Dickcissel (Spiza americana) nest sites contain a lower proportion of sericea than random points, the first evidence that the invasion is detrimental to grassland songbird species. Lacking control, the continued sericea invasion will out compete cumulatively more forb plants resulting in declining quality of grassland bird nesting habitat on the landscape. Controlling sericea lespedeza invasions will allow native forb species to increase in abundance and improve the condition of grasslands for native wildlife and livestock producers. Therefore, I advocate use of summer fire or spring fire with a combination of cattle and sheep grazing to control sericea lespedeza with the long-term goal of tall-grass prairie restoration.

There has been a critical decline in grassland bird populations due to habitat fragmentation and deterioration, and suppression of natural fires. Alteration of the disturbance cycle may lead to changes in vegetation structure and thus habitat suitability for breeding grassland birds. Management practices at the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge, including the use of prescribed fire, are in need of evaluation. My study asked what frequency of prescribed burns is necessary to support breeding grassland birds and whether vegetation structure varies among burn units. In this study, bird abundance and species richness did not differ significantly among burn units and vegetation cover-type was not a strong predictor of these factors either. There was evidence of site utilization by breeding grassland birds immediately following a burn, which suggests that the bird community is able to recovery quickly post-fire and these units may serve as viable habitat for breeding grassland birds.

First order fire effects in mixed grass and tallgrass prairies may differ between current and historic fire regimes. To determine potential differences, the thermal dynamics of nine prescribed grassland fires and six experimental fires were evaluated. Fires were instrumented with dataloggers and arrays of up to twelve thermocouples set at heights ranging from -5 cm to 300 cm. Soil moisture and texture were documented, along with fuel characteristics. A series of experimental fires allowed soil moisture to be manipulated while minimizing other variables. Maximum temperature for the prescribed fires was 875°C at 75cm, and for the experimental fires 920°C at 10 cm. In experimental fires, the greatest temperature difference was at the surface with the dry substrate averaging 130°C higher than saturated. Average temperatures at -1 cm differed by 33°C. At 60°C, residence times in dry substrate averaged almost four minutes, while the average for saturated treatment was only 1 second. Surface residence times on dry substrate averaged over 7 minutes, almost 3 times longer than saturated. Soil moisture was shown to influence relative humidity and fine fuel moisture near the ground surface. An increased evaporation of soil water at the surface is suggested by a slight drop in subsurface temperatures as the flaming front moves over the surface. These data suggest that soil moisture affects fire intensity, decreasing temperatures at all levels of a fire. Temperatures and residence times were compared with data from studies documenting temperatures significantly affecting seed germination and edaphic effects at and below the surface. Temperatures increasing the germination of some seeds were found at all heights. Temperatures documented can be expected to decrease organic matter content and aggregate stability at the surface, slightly increasing erodibility. Thermal dynamics from the fires in this study represent a broad range of grassland fires under conditions common for prescribed fire. Soil moisture appears to significantly affect temperatures and residence times below, at, and above the soil surface. Data were compared with output from FOFEM 5.2 to access the applicability of FOFEM for use in mixed grass and tallgrass prairie. FOFEM consistently underestimated soil heating by up to 419°C.

Innovative restoration strategies are critically needed in the South Texas Plains for controlling increased Opuntia cacti invasions. Using a replicated and randomized experimental study, I have examined the effects of fire seasonality and herbivory on the dominant cacti and herbaceous plant species in this semi-arid ecosystem. Results from this study demonstrate that the combination of fire and wildlife herbivory significantly reduces Opuntia cactus cover. I was able to empirically demonstrate that prescribed fire decreases prickly pear cactus cover. Moreover, this decrease is further exacerbated by the effects of large mammalian herbivores consuming and/or disturbing recently burned mottes. In the absence of fire, both mottes with and without herbivore exclosures increased in size. The ecological insights gained from this study will contribute to the development of management strategies of Opuntia cacti, while promoting the restoration and long-term sustainability of Texas rangelands.

North American grasslands and grassland birds have declined drastically due to habitat degradation by fire suppression (i.e., woody encroachment), fragmentation, and conversion to croplands. A better understanding is needed of the relationships among disturbance regimes (e.g., fire), resultant vegetation changes, and grassland bird communities to effectively manage remaining grasslands and grassland birds. I assessed the relationship between post-fire succession, and mean relative abundance and nesting ecology of breeding grassland birds (i.e., nest-site selection and nest success) in mesquite-dominated rangeland of the Texas Rolling Plains, where prescribed fire is used as a tool to manage shrub encroachment. Brush cover, grass cover, and visual obstruction generally increased with post-fire succession, and bare ground decreased with post-fire succession. Species richness, grasshopper sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum), Cassin’s sparrows (Aimophila cassinii), and dickcissels (Spiza americana) responded positively to post-fire succession, and lark sparrows (Chondestes grammacus) responded negatively to post-fire succession.; abundance of these avian groups was low on the control sites. During 2004–2005, 90 grassland bird nests were monitored. I found conflicting results for vegetation parameters important to nest site selection and probability of nest success. For all species except lark sparrows, nest-site location was positively associated with visual obstruction and with grass or forb cover. However, the probability of nest success increased with lower visual obstruction, bare ground cover, or grass cover. Grassland bird abundance, nest-site location, and nest success had differing associations with vegetation variables. These results suggest that to effectively manage remaining grasslands for sustainable breeding grassland bird populations, managers should engage in practices that keep habitat in multiple vegetative successional stages.

AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF MARGARET MARZIYE ANDERSON, for the Masters of Science degree in Forestry, presented on September 12th, at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. FIRE AND FERTILIZATION EFFECTS ON THE GROWTH AND EXPANSION OF EXISTING NATIVE CANEBRAKES [ARUNDINARIA GIGANTEA (WALT) MUHL] IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. Jon Schoonover Giant cane [Arundinaria gigantea (Walt) Muhl.], a native bamboo, is an integral component of bottomland forests in the southeastern United States. Cane occurs as monodominant stands, also known as canebrakes, which historically covered vast areas of land. As a result of land conversion, overgrazing and altered fire regimes, an alarming 98% reduction of canebrakes has occurred. Due to the ecological significance of giant cane as wildlife habitat, a riparian buffer, its role in soil stabilization and potential as woody biomass, restoration interest has increased. Research with planted cane indicated fertilization and burning had interacting effects on cane growth, however in remnant natural stands, the influence of burning and fertilization on canebrake growth and spread is unknown. This study examined the survival and growth response of cane to burning and fertilization in remnant stands to provide guidance for rehabilitation, restoration and management. Four treatment plots were replicated eight times across seven sites in canebrakes growing in riparian zones adjacent to agricultural fields in the Cache River Watershed, Illinois. The four treatments were randomized factorial design of: 1) burning, 2) fertilization, 3) burning/fertilization, or 4) control. Within treatment plots, two interior and three exterior 1-m² subplots were randomly established to measure culm density (stems/ha), height (cm), diameter (mm), and spread (increase in live culm density by the outward movement from interior subplots into exterior subplots) prior to treatment and after one and two growing seasons. Fertilized and fertilized/burned plots were treated in summers of 2011 and 2012 with a half corn rate of nitrogen (56 kg ha-1), phosphorus (22 kg ha-1), and potassium (37 kg ha-1). Prescribed burning took place in March 2012. Data were analyzed using a three way analysis of variance (fire, fertilization and subplot) (α = 0.05). At year 0 (2011), culm density, height and diameter were not significantly different among treatments. By year 2, live culm density in interior plots slightly increased, however density in exterior plots tended to more than double, indicating canebrake expansion over time. Fertilization tended to increase height and had little effect on cane diameter. Research suggests that cane typically increases in both height and diameter simultaneously, suggesting that fertilization only partially provides the resources needed to stimulate growth. Further analysis on fertilization application rates and timing may be necessary to ascertain the efficiency of its role in culm growth and development. Giant cane responded to prescribed burning through a decrease in height and culm diameter. However, fire increased culm density through stimulation of the growth of new culms. In addition, though fire consumed a portion of existing culms, the canebrake emerged vigorously, demonstrating prescribed fire's utility as a tool for land managers to reduce competition and increase canebrake health and expansion.

Purple threeawn (Aristida purpurea Nutt.) is a native bunch grass that is avoided by grazers. It is capable of dominating old cropland and overgrazed pastures, limiting livestock carrying capacity, and degrading wildlife habitat. Traditional management tools have had little impact on threeawn dominance in semiarid regions of the west. Our objectives were to: 1) assess fire and nitrogen treatment effects on threeawn forage quality at various phenological stages to test their potential as pretreatments in a grazing strategy and 2) examine a threeawn-dominated plant community’s response to prescribed fire, nitrogen addition, and clipping. Fire improved threeawn forage quality with greater improvements in early phenological stages. Nitrogen had little effect on forage quality. Fire and nitrogen reduced threeawn while increasing cool season grasses. Light and moderate clipping following fire did not improve the efficacy of fire. Fire appears to an effective preliminary treatment to improve the chance of herbivory.

When restored to full ecological function, longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests are among the most diverse forest ecosystems in the world. For the last several decades, substantial amount of efforts has taken place on public land, comparably less work has been accomplished on private lands towards longleaf pine restoration. The overall goal of this research was to examine the factors influencing the application of prescribed fire for ecological restoration on private land. This research employed both qualitative and quantitative method to explore challenges and opportunities for restoring the ecosystem. The survey examined interest among the forest landowners and general public regarding longleaf pine restoration management using prescribed fire. Key informant interviews examined factors associated with the decision making for the use of prescribed fire. Research findings have implications for designing and implementing policy instruments and improving landowners’ decision regarding processes.

In this research, the fire effects on structural and compositional change, and advance regeneration of oak forests in the Ozarks of Missouri were investigated by combining the statistic methods of MANONA, survival analysis, CART analysis, and logistic analysis. Results indicated that fire treatments significantly reduced the midsotry and understory basal area and stem density. However, fire effects on overstory tree survival differentiated among size classes. A new morphological variable, ratio of the total height to the square of basal diameter, was found to be statistically significantly related to the tree mortality rate for most of the species. The developed logistic regression models for selected species using the morphological variable well simulated the impact of initial stem size of advance regeneration on mortality for most of the species. The resultant logistic regression models could be a potential tool to compare and quantify species response to fires on a comparable basis.