The Brown-headed Parrot (Poicephalus cryptoxanthus) is a poorly known species inhabiting open woodland in south-eastern Africa. This study elucidates critical aspects of the species ecology and although each of these categories impinge on one another, it concentrates on two broad biological aspects, diet and breeding biology, and vocalizations. The species has a generalist diet, switching from one suite of food species to another as and when those species become available, with no species critical for its survival. Analysis of dietary items throughout the year and comparison with handling times and availability reveals that at no time is the species under dietary constraint. Evidence from association indices and behavioural observation shows that the popular view that the Brown-headed Parrot forms pairs just before breeding is erroneous. Birds retain pair bonds and the bond is long-term, lasting at least throughout the year. Congregations are therefore of a classical fission/fusion type with the sub-units being the paired males and females. A mathematical model of the growth of captive chicks is presented, as a guideline to alert potential breeders of Brown-headed Parrots of malnutrition or disease. The species is a secondary cavity hole nester and whilst, the breeding biology of the species is summarised, the importance of large and old trees for breeding opportunities of the species is emphasised. This theme is continued by testing various adaptive hatching hypotheses as possible explanations of asynchronous hatching in the species. It is suggested that asynchronous hatching may be an adaptive strategy moderating against the number of suitable nesting cavities. The vocalization repertoire of the Brown-headed Parrot is described and seven separate vocalizations are recognized. None of these are associated with sexual situations, offering further evidence of a long-term pair bond. Evidence is offered that Brown-headed Parrot chicks can recognise their parents from individual vocal signatures supporting previous evidence from a number of species where chicks may mingle with unrelated chicks. Conversely, parents seem to be unable to recognise their chicks in the same way. It is concluded that this inability may be a result of strong one-way selection pressure, where the costs outweigh the benefits for parents with more than one chick or may be related to the experimental design. Individual recognition by voice implies individual voice differences and the adult double chip contact call is analysed using multivariate statistical techniques. The analysis separates individuals on the basis of frequency and temporal patterns and it is concluded that these parameters may allow individual voice differentiation. Finally, high frequency aspects of the double chip contact call are examined. These frequencies lie above the normally accepted upper threshold of avian hearing. From laboratory and field experiments, behavioural evidence is presented suggesting that the Brown-headed Parrot reacts to these frequencies and may use their degradation as a means of ranging distances to conspecifics. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

This study was conducted to investigate the biology of the Greyheaded Parrot Poicephalus fuscicollis suahelicus in the wild. Field work was conducted in north-east South Africa in the southern limit of the range of the Greyheaded Parrot during two field seasons. Observations from August to December 1999 in the Levubu region, south of the Soutpansberg mountain range, included months of the non-breeding season when Greyheaded Parrots occur seasonally in the area. Observations in the Luvhuvhu-Mutale river confluence area from March to August 2000 included months of the breeding season. No field work was conducted from January to March 2000 due to exceptionally high rains in the southern African sub-region, that prevented access to sites. The Greyheaded Parrot has a widespread distribution, through southern, south Central and East Africa, that has possible changed little in recent years. However, local populations are likely to have suffered extinctions due to habitat destruction and capture for the illegal trade. Populations in protected areas (Makuya Park and Kruger National Park) are less vulnerable to capture than unprotected areas. The conservation of the Greyheaded Parrot outside of protected areas is highlighted. In various parts of the range of the Greyheaded Parrot seasonal movements occur in response to food and nest site availability. Nest sites are possibly limiting in certain parts of its range due to habitat destruction. During post-breeding flocking, the occurrence of larger flocks, possibly family units (mean ± S.E = 4.7 ± 0.2), is common, when birds wander in search for seasonally available food sources. During this period density of Greyheaded Parrots is 0.28 birds/100 ha. Monogamous pairs are more conspicuous during the breeding season (mean ± S.E = 2.1 ± 0.1) and density estimates are 0.14 birds/100 ha. Egg laying is synchronous between pairs with the timed appearance and flocking of juvenile flocks in spring (August/September). Breeding during the dry season reduces competition with other large cavity nesting bird species. Observations suggest that a skewed sex ratio exists in the population (males:females = 2:1). Daily movements are characterised by a bimodal activity pattern. Early morning movements involve flights to activity centres where the accumulation of numerous smaller flocks occur. Here preening, allo-preening and socializing occur with drinking and/or feeding occurring if food and/or water are available. Thereafter, birds move to regular feeding sites, to feed. Activity is decreased during the heat of the day with birds sleeping, resting and/or preening in the canopies of trees. Late afternoon activities involve increased levels of activity and late afternoon return flights to roosts. Greyheaded Parrots are specialist feeders, accessing the kernel of predominantly unripe fruit. This feeding strategy reduces competition with other frugivore competitors. During any one time few tree species are fed on by the Greyheaded Parrot. Greyheaded Parrots were also observed feeding on bark in the breeding season. Two, almost fully fledged, chicks were found dead in a nest and the causes of death undetermined. Their crops contained numerous pieces of masticated bark and insect parts. Behaviours and vocalizations of the Greyheaded Parrot were similar to that recorded in the Cape Parrot. Recognition of the Greyheaded Parrot as a separate species based on species specific calls and DNA warrants further investigation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Deserticolous birds inhabit an environment characterised by high ambient temperatures and low rainfall that has low primary productivity. The combination of these factors may lead to the evolution of adaptations that minimise food and water requirements. One physiological adaptation that has been found in many deserticolous birds is the reduction of basal metabolic rate (BMR). I measured metabolic rate in the laboratory using four species of African lovebirds (Agapornis) , and four species of Australian grass parakeets (one Neopsephotus and three Neophema), all similar in body mass. Tests for differences between groups were carried out using both conventional and phylogenetically independent methods. The BMRs of the lovebird and grass parakeet species were not statistically correlated with habitat type. These results confirm the findings of previous studies on the effect of desert conditions on the BMR of parrots. I also found no significant differences in BMR between the species assemblages from different continents. The lack of significant differences in BMR between deserticolous and nondeserticolous parrots supports the idea that birds are "ex-adapted" to living in desert environments. I suggest that the results may have been affected by phenotypic plasticity in BMR, as recent evidence has shown that the scaling exponent of BMR differs between captive-raised and wild-caught birds. To elucidate the effect of origin (captive-raised vs. wild-caught) on the BMR of birds used in this study a large scale analysis of bird BMR data was undertaken. BMR and body mass data for 242 species of birds were obtained from the literature, this study, and unpublished data from various sources. A phylogeny was constructed using molecular and morphological phylogenies from the literature, and analysed using conventional and phylogenetically independent methods. The conventional analysis found significant differences in the scaling exponents of BMR of captive-raised and wild-caught birds. However the phylogenetically independent method showed non-significant differences between these two groups. Conventional analysis of differences between parrots and all other birds yielded significant differences between these two groups, with parrots having significantly higher BMRs than other birds. Again the phylogenetically independent analysis found non-significant differences between these VII two groups. A test of homogeneity of variance between these two groups found significant differences between the variances ofthe two groups, probably due to disparity in sample size and range of body sizes. The conventional and phylogenetically independent tests for differences between captive-raised and wild-caught parrots yielded non-significant results, suggesting that the parrots are not subject to the phenotypic adjustments postulated for all other birds. The lack of significant differences between captive-raised and wild-caught parrots suggests that the analyses of differing habitat type for African and Australian parrots is indeed valid. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.