Dominant mutations in profilin-1 (PFN1) are associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor neuron loss, paralysis, and death from respiratory failure. Our lab recently demonstrated that PFN1 mutant proteins are destabilized—they unfold at milder conditions during thermal and chemical denaturation. Furthermore, we and others have shown that mutant PFN1 is more prone to misfold and aggregate. This misfolding alters PFN1’s protein-protein interactions, as demonstrated by an affinity purification-mass spectrometry screen. While ALS-associated mutants do not show loss of interaction, several have altered interactions with several formin family proteins, a group of proteins that interacts with profilins to regulate actin polymerization. These perturbations in profilin-formin interaction result in changes in actin metabolism, as shown by stress fiber formation in a HeLa model and neurite outgrowth in an iPSC-derived neuron model. Additionally, one mutant shows increased actin filament survival time in a microfluidic experiment, indicative of tighter binding in the actin-profilin-formin complex at the growing end of a filament. Misfolding and aggregation also puts additional stress on the cell’s proteostasis pathways. A cell culture model shows that misfolded Pfn1 is processed primarily by the proteasome, with modest contributions from autophagy. Together, this evidence provides additional support for two theories of Pfn1 ALS pathogenesis: disruptions in cytoskeletal function and proteostatic stress.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive adult neurodegenerative disease that causes death of both upper and lower motor neurons. Approximately 90 percent of ALS cases are sporadic (SALS), and 10 percent are inherited (FALS). Mutations in the PFN1 gene have been identified as causative for one percent of FALS. PFN1 is a small actin-binding protein that promotes actin polymerization, but how ALS-linked PFN1 mutations affect its cognate functions or acquire gain-of-function toxicity remains largely unknown. To elucidate the contribution of ALS-linked PFN1 mutations to neurodegeneration, we have characterized these mutants in both mammalian cultured cells and Drosophila models. In mammalian neuronal cells, we demonstrate that ALS-linked PFN1 mutants form ubiquitinated aggregates and alter neuronal morphology. We also show that ALS-linked PFN1 mutants have partial loss-of-function effects on actin polymerization in growth cones of mouse primary motor neurons and larval neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) in Drosophila. In Drosophila, we also observe that PFN1 level influences integrity of adult motor neurons, as demonstrated by locomotion, lifespan, and leg NMJ morphology. In sum, the work presented in this dissertation has shed light on PFN1- linked ALS pathogenesis by demonstrating a loss-of-function mechanism. We have also developed a Drosophila PFN1 model that will serve as a valuable tool to further uncover PFN1-associated cellular pathways that mediate motor neuron functions.

Introduction: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a deadly, progressive neuromuscular disease that affects individuals all over the world. About 10% of the patients have a familial predisposition (FALS) while the remainder of cases are isolated or sporadic (SALS) and of unknown cause. To date, the principal recognized risk factors for ALS are higher age, male gender, slim figure (BMI<23) and a family history of ALS. In 1993, Rosen et al. observed that some FALS cases were associated with mutations in the gene encoding the CuZn superoxide dismutase enzyme (SOD1). Since then, several mutations in the SOD1 gene have been discovered, and mutations in more than 18 other genes have been associated with causing ALS. The aim of this thesis was to identify new mutations associated with ALS pathogenesis, and by comparing patients from different countries, were we also able to identify population-specific genetic variations. The studies are referred to as I–V. Methods: With written informed consent and adhering to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki, through a national network of ALS clinicians´, venous blood samples were collected from ALS patients and healthy subjects in Europe and the USA. The patients were diagnosed according to the El Escorial criteria, and as having FALS according to the criteria of Byrne et al. (2011). The DNA variations were amplified by various PCR techniques. (I, III and IV) The amplicons of ataxin 2 (ATXN2), profilin 1 (PFN1), and vesicle-associated membrane protein type B (VAPB) were characterised by direct sequencing. (II) After quantitative PCR, a genotype-phenotype correlation was performed to assess whether the survival motor neuron gene (SMN) modulates the phenotype of ALS. (V) The amplicons of the 50 base pair deletion in the SOD1 promotor (50 bp) were separated by electrophoresis on agarose. Results: (I) We observed a significant association between CAG expansions in the ATXN2 gene and ALS in a European cohort. (II) Abnormal copy number of the SMN1 gene was identified as a risk factor in France, but not in Sweden. Homozygosity of the SMN2 deletion prolonged survival among Swedish ALS patients, compared to French patients. (III) We identified two mutations in the PFN1 gene, the novel p.Thr109Met mutation and the p.Gln117Gly mutation, in two unrelated FALS patients. (IV) In our cohort, we identified five VAPB mutations p.Asp130Glu, p.Ser160del, p.Asp162Glu, p.Met170Ile, and p.Arg184Trp, two of which are novel. (V) The 50 bp deletion upstream of the SOD1 gene was found in equal frequencies in both the patient and control cohorts. The 50 bp deletion did not affect SOD1 enzymatic activity. Furthermore, we found no differences in age of onset or disease duration in relation to the 50 bp deletion genotype.VI Conclusions: (I) Our findings indicate that ATXN2 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of ALS, and that CAG expansions in ATXN2 are a significant risk factor for the disease. (II) We suggest that abnormal SMN1 gene copynumber cannot be considered a universal genetic susceptibility factor for ALS. We also propose that the effect of abnormal SMN2 gene copy number on ALS phenotype may differ between populations. (III) This work provides evidence that PFN1 mutations can cause ALS as a Mendelian dominant trait. The novel p.Thr109Met mutation also shows that disturbance of actin dynamics can cause motor neuron degeneration. (IV) We find it unlikely that the VAPB mutations cause ALS in our cohorts. (V) We find it unlikely that the 50 bp region contains important regulatory elements for SOD1 expression. This thesis supports the theory that ALS is a multigenetic disease, but there appears to be great genetic variation among apparently identical populations. These studies emphasise the importance of continuous genetic screening, to identify further mutations and genes involved in ALS disease, but it also highlights the importance of cooperation and comparison between countries. / On the aetiology of ALS: A comprehensive genetic study