A common problem encountered in phased array signal processing is how to remove sources of interference from a desired signal. Two existing methods to accomplish this are the Linearly Constrained Minimum Variance (LCMV) beamformer and the Side-Lobe Canceller (SLC). LCMV provides better performance than SLC, but comes with much higher computational costs. The Steered Auxiliary Beam Canceller (SABC) presented in this thesis is a new algorithm developed to improve the performance of SLC without the computational costs of LCMV. SABC performs better than SLC because it uses high-gain auxiliary channels for cancellation. This new technique is now possible because digital arrays allow for direction finding algorithms such as Estimation of Signal Parameters via Rotational Invariance Techniques (ESPRIT) to estimate the directions of the interference sources. With this added knowledge, high gain beams similar to the main beam may be used as auxiliaries instead of low-gain antenna elements. Another contribution is a method introduced to calculate the computational complexity of LCMV, SLC, and SABC much more accurately than existing methods which only provide order-of-magnitude estimates. The final contribution is a derivation of the signal loss experienced by SLC and SABC and simulations that verify the performance of LCMV, SLC, and SABC. / Master of Science

This thesis investigates optical feed methods for phased array antennas. The technical and practical limitations are analyzed and an optimum design is determined. This optimum optical feed is a two-beam interferometric approach which uses acoustooptic phase control. The theory is derived; a computer model is developed; and the limitations are determined. Design modifications are suggested which reduce limitations and greatly extend the range of applications. / Master of Science

Thanks to a small wavelength (large bandwidth) combined with a low loss transmission window around 94 GHz and 120 GHz, the 75-120 GHz frequency band in millimeter wave (mm-wave) provides a promising opportunity for high data rate long range wireless communications and high-resolution imaging systems. Large-scale phased arrays have been exploited in such application for their beam forming and null steering capabilities, resulting in high directivity and improved SNR. But growing DC power consumption (Pdiss) in such large scale arrays has become an on-going concern along with noise, linearity and phase resolution trade-offs in current phased array architectures. To address these issues, we propose a power efficient phase shifter (PS) architecture based on quadrature hybrid coupler, which leverages the benefits of conventional active and passive PSs at mm-wave. The phase shifter has low loss, resulting in low power dissipation and the power domain phase interpolation by the quadrature hybrid gives low phase error and high linearity. We design W-band (90-100 GHz) phased array transmit and receive (T/R) modules in 130 nm SiGe BiCMOS technology based on the proposed PS and our measurements show high power efficiency with the lowest power consumption at W-band to our knowledge (18mW and 26mW power dissipations at receiver (Rx) and transmitter (Tx) front-ends respectively). Rx shows 23 to 25 dB peak gain, 6 to 9.3 dB NF and Tx can deliver upto 7 dBm output power with 18% power efficiency. Moreover, our PS can achieve 5-bit phase resolution with <2 degrees RMS phase error and provides 0 dBm saturated output power at 94 GHz. The phase shifter (PS) is also scalable beyond W-band without significant loss. We demonstrate this with a 120 GHz two channel phased array receiver (Rx), where a single channel shows 15.6 dB peak gain with Pdiss=53 mW which shows one of the highest gain efficiency (gain/Pdiss) among D-band phased arrays. We can further reduce the power consumption by leveraging the bidirectional signal processing at the phased array front-end. To achieve this, we designed a W-band bidirectional variable gain amplifier with gain variation ranging from 6 to -1 dB at 94 GHz which can be used along with bidirectional PS. The amplifier will replace the lossy SPDT switch in the conventional bidirectional approach, reducing the overall power consumption. / Ph. D. / The wireless technology is pushing towards the high operating frequencies to achieve high data rate and 75-120 GHz frequency band in millimeter wave (mm-wave) are of great current interest for the backhaul communications, radar and imaging systems. However, high frequency yields high propagation loss which has been overcome with large scale phased arrays in such applications for their high directivity, narrow beam forming capabilities and implementation with silicon technologies. The high dissipation due to large number of elements is a major concern which often requires heat sinks around the sensors leading to increase in cost, size and weight. For the large silicon array to be of practical use in commercial systems, it is paramount to maintain a high power efficiency and low power dissipation in the array element. In this research, a power efficient phased array architecture has been proposed which is implemented to design transmit/receive (T/R) modules in advanced silicon technologies. Experimental results show that the proposed architecture achieves the lowest power consumption and improved power efficiency per T/R element among state-of-the-art mm-wave phased arrays. The research also proposes an alternative way to improve power efficiency of phased arrays by reusing the amplifiers in both transmit and receive path where the amplifier replaces lossy switch as well, resulting in a low loss bidirectional system which can reduce the power consumption further. Finally, we believe that this research contribution has an significant impact in the effort of building low power large-scale phased arrays at mm-wave frequencies.

Conventional two-dimensional phased arrays face two major shortcomings: the presence of ambiguities in direction of arrival measurements and beam broadening endfire effects. The literature provides methods for addressing and minimizing these problems on conventional planar phased array structures, but there has been no investigation into solving these issues with three-dimensional geometries. In this thesis, the design and performance of a cubic phased array that can eliminate endfire effects and dramatically improve direction of arrival ambiguity resolution is investigated. Both beamforming and direction of arrival simulations are performed in MATLAB and 4nec2 simulation environments for cubic phased arrays of various sizes and at different frequencies and demonstrate that the endfire effects are eliminated and direction of arrival ambiguity resolution is dramatically improved. These findings are expected to lead to new designs of high fidelity three-dimensional phased arrays. / Master of Science / Conventional two-dimensional, flat, plane antenna arrays have revolutionized how sensing and detection systems perform. These systems, however, face two major shortcomings due to their "flat" geometry. The computation that determines the direction from which an object is approaching or a signal has been transmitted will have two solutions that are opposite each other in the same way that the polynomial expression x2 = +2 or -2 has two solutions that are opposite each other. This is known as the ambiguity problem and presents major uncertainty in direction finding or direction of arrival measurements. The second major shortcoming has to do with transmitting a signal at different directions. The antenna elements in the array are stationary, but the beams that each element transmits can be aimed in specific directions by controlling the phase of the voltage sources for each respective antenna. This is why it is called a phased array. When every element is transmitting directly forward, it is known as broadside. As the voltage sources for the elements are shifted, or steered, away from this direction, it is known as beam steering. When the beam is steered 90 degrees from the broadside direction, the beams of one column of elements are actually transmitting into the next column of elements, effectively transmitting out of a one-dimensional line array. This is known as endfire and has significant negative effects that are often desired to be avoided. Current scientific literature provides methods for addressing and minimizing these problems on conventional two-dimensional planar phased array structures, but there has been no investigation into solving these issues with three-dimensional geometries. In this thesis, the design and performance of a cubic phased array is presented. The cubic phased array eliminates endfire effects entirely because each face of the cube is identical; when transmitting at 90 degrees off broadside, the transmit area of the cube is identical to that of the broadside direction. The cubic geometry also dramatically improves the direction-finding process. By introducing a third dimension, the mathematics can more precisely determine the direction from which the object or the signal is coming, thus dramatically decreasing the ambiguity simply as a function of geometry. Both beam steering and direction of arrival simulations are performed in MATLAB and 4nec2 simulation environments for cubic phased arrays of various sizes and at different frequencies. This demonstrates that the endfire effects are eliminated and direction of arrival performance is dramatically improved. These findings are expected to lead to new designs of high fidelity three-dimensional phased arrays for a multitude of applications, especially for space applications where the three-dimensional geometry has the added benefit of resolving the requirements for compensation for the tumbling motion of objects in orbit.

Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited / This thesis is a continuation of the design and development of a three-dimensional 2.4 GHz digital phased array radar antenna. A commercial off-the-shelf quadrature modulator and demodulator were used as phase shifters in the digital transmit and receive arrays. The phase response characteristic of the demodulator was measured and the results show that the phase difference between the received phase and transmit phase is small. In order to increase the bandwidth of the phased array, a method of time-varying phase weights for linear frequency modulated signal was investigated. Using time-varying phase weights on transmit and receive give the best performance, but require the range information of the target. It is more practical to use time-varying phase weights on only one side (transmit or receive but not both), and constant phase weights on the other side. The simulation results showed that by using time-varying phase weights, the matched filter loss is not as severe as it is when using the conventional fixed weights technique. It was also found that this method is only effective for small scan angles when the time-bandwidth product is large. The approach to implement time-varying phase weights on transmit using commercial components such as direct digital synthesizer and quadrature modulator is discussed. / Civilian, Ministry of Defense, Singapore

Experimentos de Imagens por Ressonância Magnética (IRM) em pequenos animais, assim como em humanos, exigem um conjunto especifico de bobinas de Radiofrequência (RF) para maximizar ambos a homogeneidade de campo durante a transmissão e a Relação Sinal Ruído (RSR) durante a recepção. As geometrias mais comuns de bobinas transmissoras utilizadas em sistemas de humanos são as bobinas tipo gaiola ou Birdcage Coil. Dentre as geometrias de bobinas receptoras, o conceito de bobina tipo Phased Array é amplamente utilizado em aplicações que necessitam de alta RSR em uma grande região de interesse, além de permitirem obter imagens com metodologias de aquisição paralela. Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de um conjunto de bobinas transmissoras e receptoras especificamente projetadas para a aquisição de imagens do cérebro de ratos para o estudo do hipocampo. As geometrias de bobinas transmissoras estudadas foram dois Birdcages com 8 e 16 condutores e a geometria proposta por nós chamada Double Crossed Saddle (DCS Coil). Para a recepção desenvolvemos uma bobina de superfície com dois loops e um Phased Array com dois canais de recepção. Os resultados confirmam que dentre as bobinas transmissoras desenvolvidas a geometria do tipo Birdcage com 16 condutores é a mais homogênea, produzindo campos de RF com alta uniformidade em regiões de interesse de até 80% do diâmetro interno das bobinas. No entanto, o elevado número de capacitores em sua estrutura faz com que a geometria DCS coil, devido à sua simplicidade e reduzido número de capacitores, represente uma alternativa em experimentos onde as condições de carga da amostra possam variar. Dentre as geometrias de receptoras estudadas a bobina de superfície obteve maior desempenho em termos de RSR em comparação com o Phased Array de 2 canais. A comparação dos resultados utilizando bobinas específicas para a transmissão e recepção com uma bobina volumétrica operando como transmissora e receptora simultaneamente comprova a superioridade em termo de RSR dos sistemas que utilizam bobinas dedicadas, sendo confirmados através de imagens in vivo do cérebro de ratos, possibilitando aquisições com mesma resolução e RSR em um tempo reduzido de experimento. / Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) experiments on small animals, as well as in human, require a specific RF coil set in order to maximize the Radiofrequency (RF) field homogeneity during transmission and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) during reception. The most common geometries of RF transmitter coil used in human systems are the well known Birdcage resonators. Among the receiver coils geometry the concept of NMR Phased Arrays or multi channel coils is widely employed in applications that need a high SNR in a large region of interest (ROI), further allowing parallel imaging acquisition methodologies. The work reported here describes the development of a transmit-only and receive-only RF coil set actively detuned specifically designed to MRI acquisition of rats brain for purposes of neuroscience studies. The transmitter geometries developed were two Birdcages with 8 and 16 rungs and our proposed geometry named Double Crossed Saddle (DCS). For reception we developed one common surface coil made of two turn loops and a 2-channel Phased Array, both actively detuned during reception. The results have confirmed that the 16 rungs Birdcage are superior among other transmit coils in producing homogeneous RF field inside a ROI of 80% of coil´s inner diameter. However, the simplicity and reduced number of capacitors makes the DCS coil a good choice in experiments with different samples and load conditions. Among the receive coils developed, the surface coil showed a better SNR in comparison with the 2-channel Phased array, which has the advantage of producing a large area with high SNR. The SNR of both surface coil and 2-channel array was compared with a transceiver Saddle Crossed coil, available at our lab, specific designed to obtain rat brain images. These results have corroborated that transmit-only and receive-only RF coils have best performance than transceiver volume coils for obtain MRI images of rats brain, allowing image acquisition with same resolution and reduced scan time.

Experimentos de Imagens por Ressonância Magnética (IRM) em pequenos animais, assim como em humanos, exigem um conjunto especifico de bobinas de Radiofrequência (RF) para maximizar ambos a homogeneidade de campo durante a transmissão e a Relação Sinal Ruído (RSR) durante a recepção. As geometrias mais comuns de bobinas transmissoras utilizadas em sistemas de humanos são as bobinas tipo gaiola ou Birdcage Coil. Dentre as geometrias de bobinas receptoras, o conceito de bobina tipo Phased Array é amplamente utilizado em aplicações que necessitam de alta RSR em uma grande região de interesse, além de permitirem obter imagens com metodologias de aquisição paralela. Este trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de um conjunto de bobinas transmissoras e receptoras especificamente projetadas para a aquisição de imagens do cérebro de ratos para o estudo do hipocampo. As geometrias de bobinas transmissoras estudadas foram dois Birdcages com 8 e 16 condutores e a geometria proposta por nós chamada Double Crossed Saddle (DCS Coil). Para a recepção desenvolvemos uma bobina de superfície com dois loops e um Phased Array com dois canais de recepção. Os resultados confirmam que dentre as bobinas transmissoras desenvolvidas a geometria do tipo Birdcage com 16 condutores é a mais homogênea, produzindo campos de RF com alta uniformidade em regiões de interesse de até 80% do diâmetro interno das bobinas. No entanto, o elevado número de capacitores em sua estrutura faz com que a geometria DCS coil, devido à sua simplicidade e reduzido número de capacitores, represente uma alternativa em experimentos onde as condições de carga da amostra possam variar. Dentre as geometrias de receptoras estudadas a bobina de superfície obteve maior desempenho em termos de RSR em comparação com o Phased Array de 2 canais. A comparação dos resultados utilizando bobinas específicas para a transmissão e recepção com uma bobina volumétrica operando como transmissora e receptora simultaneamente comprova a superioridade em termo de RSR dos sistemas que utilizam bobinas dedicadas, sendo confirmados através de imagens in vivo do cérebro de ratos, possibilitando aquisições com mesma resolução e RSR em um tempo reduzido de experimento. / Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) experiments on small animals, as well as in human, require a specific RF coil set in order to maximize the Radiofrequency (RF) field homogeneity during transmission and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) during reception. The most common geometries of RF transmitter coil used in human systems are the well known Birdcage resonators. Among the receiver coils geometry the concept of NMR Phased Arrays or multi channel coils is widely employed in applications that need a high SNR in a large region of interest (ROI), further allowing parallel imaging acquisition methodologies. The work reported here describes the development of a transmit-only and receive-only RF coil set actively detuned specifically designed to MRI acquisition of rats brain for purposes of neuroscience studies. The transmitter geometries developed were two Birdcages with 8 and 16 rungs and our proposed geometry named Double Crossed Saddle (DCS). For reception we developed one common surface coil made of two turn loops and a 2-channel Phased Array, both actively detuned during reception. The results have confirmed that the 16 rungs Birdcage are superior among other transmit coils in producing homogeneous RF field inside a ROI of 80% of coil´s inner diameter. However, the simplicity and reduced number of capacitors makes the DCS coil a good choice in experiments with different samples and load conditions. Among the receive coils developed, the surface coil showed a better SNR in comparison with the 2-channel Phased array, which has the advantage of producing a large area with high SNR. The SNR of both surface coil and 2-channel array was compared with a transceiver Saddle Crossed coil, available at our lab, specific designed to obtain rat brain images. These results have corroborated that transmit-only and receive-only RF coils have best performance than transceiver volume coils for obtain MRI images of rats brain, allowing image acquisition with same resolution and reduced scan time.

Research institutions around the globe are developing phased array feed (PAF) systems for wide-field L-band radio astronomical observations. PAFs offer faster survey speeds and larger fields of view than standard single-pixel feeds, which enable rapid sky surveys and significantly increased scientific capability. Because deep space astronomical signals are inherently weak, PAF systems must meet stringent noise and sensitivity requirements. Meeting these requirements requires detailed modeling of the phased array itself as well as the reflector it is mounted on. This thesis details a novel approach to dual-pol PAF design that models the array and reflector as a complete system in order to achieve a more optimal sensitivity and system noise temperature. The design and construction of two arrays designed using this technique is discussed. The implementation of a data acquisition system to receive data from the first of these arrays is also detailed. Polarization state information plays an important role in understanding cosmological processes for many deep space sources. Because of phase and gain imbalances in the LNAs and receiver chains calibration is required for accurate measurement of polarization by phased array feeds. As a result accurate polarimetric calibration techniques are essential for many observations. Existing polarimetric calibration methods are based on assumptions about the form of the system Mueller matrix that limit the generality of the method or require long observations of a polarized source which is time-consuming for multiple PAF beams. This thesis introduces a more efficient method of calibration that uses only three snapshot observations of bright astronomical calibrator sources, one unpolarized and two partially polarized. The design of an engineering array for the Green Bank Telescope is discussed. Measured results from a prototype element are presented along with simulated on-reflector results for the full array. Simulations predict that the array will be the highest sensitivity dual pol feed built by the Radio Astronomy Systems group at Brigham Young University to date.

This thesis presents an introduction to the design and simulation of a novel class of integrated photonic phased array switch elements. The main objective is to use nano-electromechanical (NEMS) based phase shifters of cascaded under-etched slot nanowires that are compact in size and require a small amount of power to operate them. The structure of the switch elements is organized such that it brings the phase shifting elements to the exterior sides of the photonic circuits. The transition slot couplers, used to interconnect the phase shifters, are designed to enable biasing one of the silicon beams of each phase shifter from an electrode located at the side of the phase shifter. The other silicon beam of each phase shifter is biased through the rest of the silicon structure of the switch element, which is taken as a ground. Phased array switch elements ranging from 2×2 up to 8×8 multiple-inputs/multiple-outputs (MIMO) are conveniently designed within reasonable footprints native to the current fabrication technologies. Chapter one presents the general layout of the various designs of the switch elements and demonstrates their novel features. This demonstration will show how waveguide disturbances in the interconnecting network from conventional switch elements can be avoided by adopting an innovative design. Some possible applications for the designed switch elements of different sizes and topologies are indicated throughout the chapter. Chapter two presents the design of the multimode interference (MMI) couplers used in the switch elements as splitters, combiners and waveguide crossovers. Simulation data and design methodologies for the multimode couplers of interest are detailed in this chapter. Chapter three presents the design and analysis of the NEMS-operated phase shifters. Both simulations and numerical analysis are utilized in the design of a 0º-180º capable NEMS-operated phase shifter. Additionally, the response of some of the designed photonic phased array switch elements is demonstrated in this chapter. An executive summary and conclusions sections are also included in the thesis.

This thesis presents an introduction to the design and simulation of a novel class of integrated photonic phased array switch elements. The main objective is to use nano-electromechanical (NEMS) based phase shifters of cascaded under-etched slot nanowires that are compact in size and require a small amount of power to operate them. The structure of the switch elements is organized such that it brings the phase shifting elements to the exterior sides of the photonic circuits. The transition slot couplers, used to interconnect the phase shifters, are designed to enable biasing one of the silicon beams of each phase shifter from an electrode located at the side of the phase shifter. The other silicon beam of each phase shifter is biased through the rest of the silicon structure of the switch element, which is taken as a ground. Phased array switch elements ranging from 2×2 up to 8×8 multiple-inputs/multiple-outputs (MIMO) are conveniently designed within reasonable footprints native to the current fabrication technologies. Chapter one presents the general layout of the various designs of the switch elements and demonstrates their novel features. This demonstration will show how waveguide disturbances in the interconnecting network from conventional switch elements can be avoided by adopting an innovative design. Some possible applications for the designed switch elements of different sizes and topologies are indicated throughout the chapter. Chapter two presents the design of the multimode interference (MMI) couplers used in the switch elements as splitters, combiners and waveguide crossovers. Simulation data and design methodologies for the multimode couplers of interest are detailed in this chapter. Chapter three presents the design and analysis of the NEMS-operated phase shifters. Both simulations and numerical analysis are utilized in the design of a 0º-180º capable NEMS-operated phase shifter. Additionally, the response of some of the designed photonic phased array switch elements is demonstrated in this chapter. An executive summary and conclusions sections are also included in the thesis.