Master of Science / Division of Biology / David A. Haukos / The ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) is a popular and economically important upland gamebird in Kansas. Population declines have stakeholders seeking methods to manage populations on agricultural lands. Cover crops planted during the breeding period may provide important resources pheasants require for survival and successful reproduction. I evaluated three cover crop mixes; a custom mix, commercial mix, a wildlife mix, and a chemical fallow control in three counties in western Kansas, during 2017 and 2018 to determine their potential as a management practice for increasing pheasant habitat. I tested the relative effects of spring cover crops on female pheasant survival, nest survival, nest-site selection, and mesocarnivore occupancy. Females pheasants (73) were captured via nightlighting during February – April and fitted with 15-g very-high-frequency radio collars and monitored by telemetry. I placed 58 camera traps on field edges and within cover crop treatments from April to September. Vegetation data were collected at nests and random points to assess nest-site selection and weekly random vegetation points were sampled within treatments. I used known fate and nest survival models in the package RMark interface in R to investigate adult and nest survival (R Core Team 2018). Adult breeding season survival was 0.57 (SE < 0.0001, CI = 0.5739 – 0.5740). Percent spring cover crop positively influenced adult survival (AICc wi = 0.450). Nest survival was 0.36 (SE < 0.001, CI = 0.3614 - 0.3614). Daily nest survival followed a pattern of high survival that gradually declined over the breeding season. Resource selection functions suggest female ring-necked pheasants selected vegetation between 5-7 dm at 50% VOR for nest sites (AICc wi = 0.97). Chi-square analyses suggest females selected Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) patches for nest sites more than expected during both years (2017 χ²₄ = 26.49, P < 0.001; 2018 χ²₄ = 9.80, P = 0.04). CRP supported 57% of nests and 56% of successful nests relative to other cover types. All three of the monitored nests in cover crops were depredated. Ring-necked pheasant occupancy was greatest on edges of treatments (ψ = 0.97, SE = 0.081) and influenced by proportion of the Chick Magnet seed mix (AICc wi = 0.68). Mesocarnivore occupancy was greatest on treatment edges with a constant occupancy of 0.99 (SE = 0.47, AICc wi = 0.66). Spring cover crops provide cover and foraging resources when the majority of agricultural practices are fallow. Spring cover crops do not provide sufficient vertical cover for nesting until after peak nesting occurs, especially during cooler than average winter and spring conditions such as 2018. However, there are tangible benefits of spring cover crops to other biological periods, such as adult female survival, and brood resources if placement of cover crops is targeted near quality nest habitat. My results indicates wheat is an ecological trap for nesting due to increased predation and destruction during harvest. Providing quality nest structure will reduce females nesting in wheat. Incorporation of spring cover crops is a beneficial wildlife management tool that can increase ring-necked pheasant habitat on the landscape.

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Abstract The breeding success of released pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) is poor compared with wild ones in Great Britain. Many factors have been cited as possible causes of poor breeding success, including reduced hen condition in the nesting season. The aims of this study were to determine whether reduced body condition due to an inadequate diet contributes to poor breeding success of released pheasants and to demonstrate experimentally the impact of supplementary feeding on their body condition and breeding success. A series of 6 studies of food availability, diet, body condition and breeding success of pheasants was conducted in Britain between 1994 and 2000 to study these questions. Spring diet and food availability were assessed in a multi-site study. Grains and seeds are important dietary components, but their availability to pheasants and their occurrence in the diet was low on all sites during spring. Grains were only a significant component in the diet on sites where supplementary feeding continued into spring. A spring survey of hen pheasant body condition on 21 sites revealed that fat reserves were higher on sites with spring supplementary feeding compared with sites which ceased feeding at the end of the shooting season (1st February). Further, it was demonstrated experimentally that continuing feeding into spring enabled hens to maintain fat reserves at their winter levels, whereas fat reserves of hens in unsupplemented areas were reduced by up to 50%. Supplementary feeding did not improve survival of hens through the spring, but the pre-breeding density of territorial cocks and hens was increased. Feeding did not significantly influence measured productivity parameters except for aspects of re-nesting ability which were improved by feeding. Overall, the densities of young birds observed during autumn counts were twice as high in plots which had been provided with supplementary grain in the previous spring than in unfed plots. Although population densities of pheasants were positively influenced by supplementary feeding, breeding success was still lower than that of wild birds. Clearly, there are behavioural and physiological deficiencies which pre-dispose released pheasants to poor performance in the wild. Habitat deficiencies other than adult food availability are likely to be important too; in particular, the quality of brood rearing habitat which influences chick survival. However, the results of this study contribute to our knowledge of the ecology and management of released pheasants and it is recommended that spring feeding should be conducted routinely by game managers to enable released hens to maintain body condition and maximise their breeding potential.

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These 4 chapters represent manuscripts formatted for submission to journals based on an experiment conducted on Ring-necked Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). Calcium limits the distribution of this species, which produces 7-15 eggs per clutch. They may renest up to 5 times per breeding season on a diet low in calcium. The first chapter examines egg production in laying hens on 7 different diets from 0.19-4.47% calcium in the absence of calcium loading. Calcium-loaded pheasants store calcium in medullary bone before an experiment and can draw on this surplus during egg production, possibly skewing experimental results. We measured egg production, egg characteristics, and hen femur ash fraction in a 2-month experiment. Hens in the middle 5 dietary calcium (1.07-3.08%) groups statistically produced the same number of eggs, which differed from reported studies where hens were calcium-loaded. Ash fraction values indicated that hens expended medullary bone reserves to produce eggs when dietary input was low. In Chapter 2, we examined bone properties in the above femurs to determine if pheasant hens on low calcium diets expended enough medullary bone stores to compromise skeletal integrity. We applied a 3-point bending test to find femur breaking strength and examined structural bone properties. Calcium and breaking strength were linearly associated. Femurs of hens given lower calcium diets were easier to break. Structural properties of cortical bone were not correlated with dietary calcium. Pheasants on low calcium, comparable to wild conditions, seemed to sacrifice skeletal integrity to maintain high egg production, although not enough to damage cortical bone. In Chapter 3 we examined 437 eggs laid to determine if egg color correlated with dietary calcium, egg mass, volume or shell thickness. Yellow pigment decreased with increasing calcium. Biliverdin had a higher affinity for calcium than protoporphyrin. In Chapter 4, we examined male pheasants to determine if reduced surface area on one wing (clipped) induced unbalanced pectoralis muscle development and humerous density on the corresponding side after wing-whirring for 2 months. We weighed pectoralis muscles and conducted 3-point bending tests on humeri of 7 pheasant males. We found no difference in pectoralis muscles mass, humeri breaking strength or ash fraction between clipped and unclipped wings. Wing-whirring may only put a negligible strain on male Ring-necked Pheasant pectoralis muscles and humeri.