The bacterial phosphotriesterase (PTE) from Pseudomonas diminuta possess very broad substrate specificity for organophosphorus compounds. It is capable of hydrolyzing several insecticides including paraoxon and various chemical warfare agents such as sarin (GB), soman (GD), cyclosarin (GF) and VX. The catalytic ability of PTE for the hydrolysis of paraoxon is close to the limit of diffusion of the reactant in solution. However, the catalytic activity of PTE for the organophosphate nerve agents is lower than that for paraoxon. It was reported that the wild-type PTE preferentially catalyze the hydrolysis of the less toxic Rp- enantiomers of organophosphate nerve agents and their analogues than the more toxic Sp- enantiomers. The first generation of PTE mutants that contains a modified substrate binding pocket was identified and it was observed that their catalytic activity towards the more toxic Sp- enantiomers organophosphate nerve agent analogues was enhanced. The H254G/H257W/L303T mutant was shown to have a reversed stereoselectivity. The kcat/Km values of this mutant towards the hydrolysis of the SpRc- and SpSc-enantiomers of the GD analogue and the Sp-enantiomer of the GF analogue were enhanced by 73-, 543-, and 1340-fold relatively to the wile-type enzyme, respectively. The second generation of PTE mutants were isolated and shown to have higher activity toward the Sp-enantiomers of the GD and GF analogues than the first generation mutants. Saturation mutagenesis, in vitro screening and in vivo selection were conducted using the gene for the mutants from the first generation. The GWT-d3 mutant was identified as the most active PTE mutant towards the hydrolysis of the Spenantiomers of the GD analogue, the kcat/Km values were 780- and 3530-fold higher than the wild-type enzyme toward the SpRc- and SpSc-enantiomers of the GD analogues. The GWT-f5 mutant was the best PTE mutant towards the Sp-enantiomer of the GF analogue, the kcat/Km values were 15500-fold higher than the wild-type enzyme. The X-ray crystal structures of the wild-type PTE and the G60A mutant were determined in the presence of the hydrolysis product diethyl phosphate and a product analogue cacodylate, respectively. This result supports the reaction mechanism previously proposed by Dr. Sarah Aubert.

Phosphotriesterase (PTE) isolated from the soil bacterium Flavobacterium sp. is a member of the amidohydrolase superfamily. PTE catalyzes the hydrolysis of a broad spectrum of organophosphate triesters including the insecticide paraoxon, and the chemical warfare agents; GF, sarin, and soman. In addition, PTE has been shown to catalytically hydrolyze the lethal nerve agent, VX. However, the rate of VX hydrolysis is significantly slower. PTE was subjected to directed evolution studies to identify variants with enhanced activity towards VX hydrolysis. First generation libraries targeted amino acid residues in the substrate binding site. The H254A mutation displayed a 4-fold enhancement in kcat and a 2-fold enhancement in kcat/Km over wild type PTE. The double mutant H254Q/H257F was isolated from the second generation libraries and displayed a 10-fold enhancement in kcat and a 3-fold enhancement in kcat/Km. In addition, H254Q/H257F displayed a 9-fold enhancement in kcat/Km for the hydrolysis of the VX analog, demeton-S. An in vivo selection approach utilizing organophosphate triesters as the sole phosphorus source is discussed. The selection is based on co-expressing PTE with the phosphodiesterase (GpdQ) from E. aerogenes. Substrate specificity of GpdQ was investigated using a small library of structurally diverse organophosphate diesters and phosphonate monoesters. Results obtained from the in vivo growth assays showed that GpdQ enabled E. coli to utilize various organophosphate diesters and phosphonate monoesters as the sole phosphorus source. Cells co-expressing PTE and GpdQ were tested for their ability to utilize two different organophosphate triesters as the sole phosphorus source. The results from this experiment indicate that the growth rate is limited by the phosphotriesterase activity. Protein translocation to the periplasm was proven advantageous for in vivo selection since it overcomes the limitation of intercellular delivery of the substrate of interest. Translocation of PTE to the periplasmic space of E. coli was examined. Two signal peptides were tested; the native leader peptide from Flavobacterium sp. and the signal sequence of alkaline phosphatase. The results obtained from cellular fractionation indicated that neither signal peptides were able to translocate PTE to the periplasm and that the protein remained in the cytoplasm.

Phosphotriesters, also known as organophosphates (OP), represent a class of toxic compounds first synthesized in Germany. Enzymatic removal of harmful insecticides and breakdown products is a promising alternative to skimming or dredging. Wild type bacterial phosphotriesterase (PTE) was screened against 7 agricultural organophosphates: coumaphos, chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, temephos, profenofos, pirimiphosmethyl and diazinon. The initial results laid the groundwork for a mutagenesis study to investigate the determining factors in enzyme reactivity. Coumaphos is hydrolyzed more efficiently than any other target by the wild type cobalt enzyme (kcat/Km = 2 x 10^7 M^-1s^-1). Coumaphos, fenitrothion and chlorpyrifos had the lowest Km values from the initial screen and were targets for steady state kinetic characterization of active site mutants. Site directed mutagenesis of binding sites was conducted and the most reactive point mutants, F132G, F132V and S308G, were used as backgrounds for subsequent mutation. Seven active site double mutants: F132G/S308G, F132G/S308T, F132V/S308G, F132V/S308T, F132G/I106T, F132V/I106T and G308/W309 were purified to homogeneity for kinetic characterization. The double mutant G308/F132V enhanced chlorpyrifos reactivity relative to the wild type enzyme. This enhancement of reactivity is proposed to result from conformational rearrangement following substrate bond hydrolysis.

Phosphotriesterase (PTE) is a zinc metalloenzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of organophosphorus compounds. Metal ion roles during binding and catalysis are probed by comparing the kinetic properties of Zn/Zn, Cd/Cd, and Zn/Cd PTE with a variety of phosphate trisesters. The metal in the α-site of the binuclear metal center modulates the pKa values determined from pH-rate profiles. These results suggest that the α-metal is responsible for activating the nucleophilic hydroxide. In an effort to determine the function of the β-metal, the kinetic parameters for diethyl p-chlorophenyl thiophosphate are compared with diethyl p-chlorophenyl phosphate. The thiophosphate substrate is hydrolyzed 20 to 100-times faster than the phosphate substrate for Zn/Zn, Cd/Cd, and Zn/Cd PTE. When Cd2+ occupies the β-site, the inverse thio effect increases which suggests polarization by the β-metal on the phosphoryl oxygen or sulfur bond. The catalytic roles of Asp 233, His 254, and Asp 301 are determined by comparing the kinetic parameters of a series of alanine and asparagine mutations with paraoxon and diethyl p-chlorophenyl phosphate. The increased rate of hydrolysis for diethyl p-chlorophenyl phosphate with the mutants is consistent with the existence of a proton relay system from Asp 301 to His 254 to Asp 233. A detailed mechanism for the hydrolysis of organophosphates by PTE has been proposed. PTE hydrolyzes a number of chiral organophosphorus esters. The pKa of the leaving group phenol is altered for a series of chiral phosphate, phosphonate, and phosphinate esters. The stereoselectivity of wild-type, G60A, and I106G/F132G/H257Y PTE is enhanced as the pKa value of the leaving group phenol increases for phosphate, phosphonate, and phosphinate esters. In addition to improving the stereoselectivity of phosphotriesterase, mutations that affect the size of the active site of PTE are screened to identify a mutant enzyme that preferentially hydrolyzes the opposite isomer of wild-type PTE. The rate constants and stereoselectivity ratios for a number of active site mutants have been determined. H254Y/L303T PTE reverses the stereoselective preference of phosphonate and phosphinate substrates. The PTE stereoselectivity of O-methyl, O-phenyl acetylphenyl phosphate is reversed 970-fold by I106G/F132G/H257Y. A reversal mutant was resolved for phosphate, phosphonate, and phosphinate esters.

Phosphotriesterase (PTE) from Pseudomonas diminuta is a zinc metalloenzyme found in soil bacteria capable of organophosphate hydrolysis at rates approaching the diffusion controlled limit. Interest in PTE for degradation of chemical warfare agents and disposal of pesticides supports the need to understand the mechanism by which it performs hydrolysis. For further mechanistic clarity, this work will provide direct confirmation of the solvent bridge identity and the protonated species resulting in loss of catalytic identity. Inhibitor and product binding to the metal center will also be addressed; as well as the evaluation of the catalytic activity of Fe(II)-substituted PTE. This work has determined that the Mn/Mn-PTE electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrum exhibits exchange coupling that is facilitated through a hydroxide bridge. Protonation of the bridging hydroxide results in the loss of the exchange coupling between the two divalent cations and the loss of catalytic activity. The reversible protonation of the bridging hydroxide has an apparent pKa of 7.3 based upon changes in the EPR spectrum of Mn/Mn-PTE with alterations in pH. The pH-rate profile for the hydrolysis of paraoxon by Mn/Mn-PTE shows the requirement of a single function group that must be unprotonated with a pKa of 7.1. The comparable pKa values are proposed to result from the protonation of the same ionizable species. The effects of inhibitor and product binding on the magnetic properties of the metal center and the hydroxyl bridge are investigated by accessing new EPR spectral features. This work concludes that the binding of inhibitor occurs at the metal center and results in an increase of non-bridged hydroxyl species. These results, in conjunction with kinetic and crystallographic data, suggest that substrate binding via the phosphoryl oxygen at the ?-metal weakens the hydroxyl bridge coordination to the ?-metal. This loss of coordination would increase the nucleophilic character of the bridge, and binding of the substrate to the metal center would result in a stronger nucleophile for hydrolysis. Lastly, Fe(II) binding and activation of apoenzyme is evaluated under anaerobic conditions. This work concludes Fe/Fe-PTE is not catalytically active, but can bind up to 2 equivalent Fe(II) ions per active site.

Organophosphate hydrolase (OPH, EC 3.1.8.1) is a bacterial enzyme with a broad spectrum of potential substrates that include organophosphorus pesticides, herbicides, and chemical warfare agents. OPH has been expressed successfully in bacterial, fungal, and insect cell culture systems; however, none of these systems produces amounts of enzyme suitable for applications outside of the research laboratory. Therefore, a transgenic Zea mays L. (maize) system was developed to express OPH as an alternate to the current OPH expression systems. The bacterial gene encoding the OPH protein was optimized for transcriptional and translational expression in maize. The optimized gene was inserted into the maize genome under the control of embryo specific, endosperm specific, and constitutive plant promoters. Select transformants were analyzed for the expression of OPH. Expression was observed in the seeds of plants transformed with each of the three constructs with the highest expression observed with the embryo specific and constitutive promoter constructs. The highest OPH expressing lines of transgenic maize had expression levels higher than those reported for the E. coli expression system. OPH was purified from transgenic maize seed and analyzed for posttranslational modification and kinetic properties. OPH was observed to undergo a glycosylation event when expressed in maize that yielded at least two forms of OPH homogolous dimer. The glycosylated form of OPH bound tightly to the Concanavalin A sepharose and remained active after months of storage at room temperature. OPH activity was checked against a number of organophosphate herbicides. Enzymatic activity was observed against the herbicide Amiprophos-methyl and kinetic properties were measured. Enzymatic activity was also tested against the organophosphate Haloxon. Transgenic maize callus, leaf, and seed tissue could be screened for the presence of the optimized opd gene by enzymatic activity. Comparison of the growth of transgenic and control callus on media containing organophosphates showed that the transgenic callus was resistant to the herbicidal effects of haloxon. Transgenic plants expressing OPH were also resistant to the herbicide bensulide when compared to control plants. This indicates that OPH can be used as a screenable marker in plant systems and may be a potential scorable marker system as well.

Organophosphate hydrolase (OPH, EC 3.1.8.1) is a bacterial enzyme with a broad spectrum of potential substrates that include organophosphorus pesticides, herbicides, and chemical warfare agents. OPH has been expressed successfully in bacterial, fungal, and insect cell culture systems; however, none of these systems produces amounts of enzyme suitable for applications outside of the research laboratory. Therefore, a transgenic Zea mays L. (maize) system was developed to express OPH as an alternate to the current OPH expression systems. The bacterial gene encoding the OPH protein was optimized for transcriptional and translational expression in maize. The optimized gene was inserted into the maize genome under the control of embryo specific, endosperm specific, and constitutive plant promoters. Select transformants were analyzed for the expression of OPH. Expression was observed in the seeds of plants transformed with each of the three constructs with the highest expression observed with the embryo specific and constitutive promoter constructs. The highest OPH expressing lines of transgenic maize had expression levels higher than those reported for the E. coli expression system. OPH was purified from transgenic maize seed and analyzed for posttranslational modification and kinetic properties. OPH was observed to undergo a glycosylation event when expressed in maize that yielded at least two forms of OPH homogolous dimer. The glycosylated form of OPH bound tightly to the Concanavalin A sepharose and remained active after months of storage at room temperature. OPH activity was checked against a number of organophosphate herbicides. Enzymatic activity was observed against the herbicide Amiprophos-methyl and kinetic properties were measured. Enzymatic activity was also tested against the organophosphate Haloxon. Transgenic maize callus, leaf, and seed tissue could be screened for the presence of the optimized opd gene by enzymatic activity. Comparison of the growth of transgenic and control callus on media containing organophosphates showed that the transgenic callus was resistant to the herbicidal effects of haloxon. Transgenic plants expressing OPH were also resistant to the herbicide bensulide when compared to control plants. This indicates that OPH can be used as a screenable marker in plant systems and may be a potential scorable marker system as well.

Les organophosphorés (OPs) sont des composés neurotoxiques qui sont largement utilisés comme pesticides. Cette utilisation intensive a conduit à une importante pollution des sols et des effluents agricoles et sont retrouvés jusque dans les aliments. Ces pesticides sont responsables de 300 000 morts à travers le monde. Les OPs ont également été développés comme agents neurotoxiques de guerre tel que le sarin. Actuellement, il n’existe pas de méthode de décontamination externe satisfaisante pour dégrader les OPs, c’est pourquoi l’utilisation d’enzymes est une stratégie attractive. Parmi les enzymes capables de dégrader les OPs, les phosphotriestérases (PTEs) sont les plus actives mais sont peu stables ce qui limite leurs applications. Les enzymes hyperthermostables ont donc été considérées. Ainsi l’enzyme SsoPox, isolée de l’archée Sulfolobus solfataricus ayant une activité lactonase et une activité de promiscuité phosphotriestérase, a été plus particulièrement étudiée. SsoPox est extrêmement robuste mais son activité phosphotriestérase est en revanche plus faible. Une stratégie d’ingénierie protéique a été réalisée afin d’obtenir un compromis entre l’activité d'une PTE et la stabilité de SsoPox. En utilisant les similarités structurales entre ces deux enzymes, une base de données mutationnelle a été réalisée pour transférer le site actif hautement performant d’une PTE dans la structure hyperstable de SsoPox. Cette stratégie a permis d’obtenir des variants de SsoPox améliorés jusqu’à 2000 fois. L'efficacité de ces variants a été démontrée in vivo chez un modèle animal, la planaire, permettant d'améliorer la survie ainsi que la mobilité et la capacité de régénération. / Organophosphates (OPs) are neurotoxic compounds widely used as pesticides. Over the years, utilization of OP led to a considerable environmental contamination of soils and agricultural wastewaters, this pollution is furthermore a major health issue as these insecticides can be found in food. OP are highly toxic and are responsible for 300,000 deaths in the world every year. OPs were also developed as chemical warfare nerve agents such as sarin. Currently, no satisfying method for external decontamination is available, therefore bioremediation with enzymes is highly appealing. Among OP degrading enzymes, phosphotriesterases (PTEs) are the most active biocatalysts but are poorly stable what hinders their potential for bioremediation. Hyperthermostable enzymes from extreme environments were thus considered to circumvent this limitation. In particular, SsoPox isolated from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, displaying a lactonase activity and a promiscuous phosphotriesterase activity was deeply investigated. SsoPox is extremely robust but its activity for OP degradation is from far lower. A protein engineering strategy was started in order to reach a compromise between PTE activity and SsoPox robustness. Using structural similarities between PTEs and SsoPox, a mutational database was designed in order to transfer the highly performant active site of PTE into the hyperstable scaffold of SsoPox. This strategy led to variants displaying up to 2,000-fold increase against OPs as compared to wild-type enzyme. The variants efficiency was demonstrated in vivo using an original animal model planarian, allowed to enhance survival rate as well as mobility and regeneration capacity.

No description available.

Metallohydrolases with dinuclear-zinc active sites perform many important biological hydrolytic reactions on a variety of substrates. In this regard, metallo-β-lactamases (mβ1, class B) represent a unique subset of zine hydrolases that hydrolyze the β-lactam ring in several antibiotics. The antibiotic resistance that results from this hydrolysis is becoming an increased threat for the clinical community. These metalloenzymes can hydrolyze a wide range of β-lactam substrates, such as cephamycins and imipenem that are generally resistant t the serine-containing β-lactamases. Therefore, the clinical application of the entire range of antibiotics is severely compromised in bacteria that produce mβls. Due to the lack of information on the mechanism of mβls, to-date, no clinically known inhibitors is there for mβls. In this present study, we synthesized several mono and dizinc complexes as models for the mβls and investigated the differences in their hydrolytic properties. This study supports the assumption that the second zinc in the dinuclear enzymes does not directly involve in the catalysis, but may orient the substrates for hydrolysis and the basic amino acid residues such as Asp and His may activate the zinc-bound water molecules, fulfilling the role of the second zinc in the mononuclear enzymes. The effect of various side chains on the hydrolysis of some commonly used cephalosporin antibiotics by mβl from B.cereus is described. It is shown that the cephalosporins having heterocyclic thiol side chains are more resistance to mβl-mediated hydrolysis than the antibiotics that do not have such side chains. This is partly due to the inhibition of enzyme activity by the thiol moieties eliminated during the hydrolysis. It is also observed that the heterocyclic side chains in pure form inhibit the lactamase activity of mβl as well as its synthetic mimics. The mode of binding of these heterocyclic side chains to the zinc has been analyzed from the crystal structure of the tetranuclear zinc complexes. The theoretical studies suggest that the eliminated heterocyclic thiols undergo a rapid tautomerism to produce the corresponding thiones. These thiones are found to irreversibly inhibit the LPO-catalyzed iodination reaction. The reaction of various thiones with I2 leads to the formation of thione-iodine complexes similar to that of the most commonly used antithyroid drug methimazole(MMI). These observations suggest that some of the latest generation of antibiotics may show negative effects on thyroid gland upon hydrolysis. Synthetic organophosphorus compounds have been used extensively as pesticides and petroleum additives. These compounds are very toxic to mammals and their widespread use in agriculture leads to serious environmental problems. Therfore, degradation of organophosphorus trimesters and remediation of associated contaminated sites are of worldwide concern. In this regards, the bacterial phsophotriesterase (PTE) enzyme plays an important role in degrading a wide range of organophosphorus esters and the active side of PTE has been shown to be very similar to that of mβl. This identification prompted us to check the hydrolysis of phosphotriesters by the mβl and its mimics. It has been observed that the dinuclear zine(II) complexes that do not allow a strong binding of phosphodiestes would be a better PTE mimics.