Thirteen differentially-reared juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were subjects in a twenty-one week long study investigating macaques' behavioral responses to novel stimuli. Both animate (an unfamiliar conspecific) and inanimate objects (ball, board and hanging acrylic cylinder) were presented to the monkeys while in their home cages. All subjects were female; seven were nursery-raised/peer-reared and six family-grouped (unimale/multifemale) raised. Scan and focal-sampling techniques were used to collect data on forty-two behaviors. The fifteen most frequently occurring behaviors (each accounting for one percent of total behavioral frequencies) were statistically tested. The focal sample data was analyzed on both an overall and across treatment level using a Student's t test and Chi square analysis. The intergroup differences occurred both during baseline and manipulation periods. The family-grouped subjects approached novel stimuli earlier and interacted with the objects more often than did the peer-grouped monkeys. The intergroup differences were statistically significant (p $<$.05), both on an individual and group level. Among the similarities observed between the differentially-reared juveniles were an increase in behavioral frequencies over time, a preference for the edges rather than central portions of the cage, and comparable frequencies of aggression when the animate stimulus (unfamiliar monkey) was present. Scan samples were made on the focal juvenile-aged subjects, as well as all other members of the seven groups (two peer groups and five family groups). The animals' utilization of space and behavioral frequencies were recorded pre- and post-focal sampling observations. The peer-reared monkeys lagged behind the family-reared individuals in their occupation of cage areas near the novel stimuli by eighteen weeks. Also, the family-reared juveniles tended to approach novel stimuli in manners comparable to the adults in their groups. The peer-reared juveniles' approaches were similar in frequency and nature to the family-grouped yearling and infants' displays. A preliminary follow-up study of the animals' reproductive activity indicates intergroup differences. During their first two years of parenthood the peer-reared females became pregnant earlier and more often than family-reared females. Over the two year period the peer-reared females had fourteen pregnancies versus the family-reared females' nine. But, the peer-reared had two stillbirths, three neonatal deaths and one infant rejection. One out of nine pregnancies resulted in a stillbirth among the family-reared females. The intergroup differences and similarities, both as juveniles and as adults, are discussed as possible measures of behavioral flexibility in this species. The theoretical and practical implications of restricting macaques' social rearing conditions are presented.

The objective of this research was to determine whether access to mother-peer (MP) reared rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) affected the behavior and physiology of juvenile and adolescent surrogate-peer (SP) and peer-only reared (PR) monkeys. Monkeys were housed in a mixed-rearing group (MP, SP, and PR together) or two same-rearing groups (one MP group and one SP and PR group). The studies of this dissertation used behavior and physiology to test three prediction models: SP and PR monkeys would be more similar to MP monkeys in the mixed-rearing group compared to the same-rearing group (acculturation model), more different (dissimilation model), or there would be no effect of MP monkeys in the mixed-rearing group (stability model). In experiment one, basic behavioral responses of 14-month old nursery reared monkeys were consistent with the stability model; however, SP monkeys showed a greater magnitude of difference in initiated social behavior than PR monkeys. In experiment two, SP monkeys preferred both SP and MP partners almost equally for all behaviors in the mixed-rearing group (acculturation model), whereas PR monkeys showed little fluctuation in partner preferences, preferring primarily other PR monkeys as partners (stability model). Also, there were more aggressive responses to aggressive interactions in SP monkeys in the mixed-rearing group (dissimilation model), whereas PR monkeys were similar to MP monkeys (stability model). In experiment three, plasma cortisol (CORT) of 14- and 26-month old SP monkeys and of 37- and 49-month old SP monkeys was similar to MP monkeys of the same ages. However, CORT of PR monkeys became more similar to MP monkeys over time in the mixed-rearing group. Variation in CORT among differently reared monkeys was also reduced over time. Mixed-rearing housing resulted in behavioral acculturation of SP monkeys and the physiological acculturation of PR monkeys; however, it is possible that SP monkeys showed physiological acculturation prior to our blood sampling and PR monkeys showed behavioral acculturation after our behavioral sampling. Thus, future studies evaluating monkeys in same- and mixed-rearing groups are necessary in order to examine this timing effect of behavioral and physiological acculturation.

This dissertation investigates reproductive schedules of brown mouse lemurs at Ranomafana, using intensive trapping techniques. The reproductive condition of female mouse lemurs was recorded on the basis of vaginal morphology, vaginal smears, body mass gain profiles and nipple development. Testis size was measured in males throughout the reproductive season. The timing of the first seasonal estrus was determined in frequently captured females over multiple years and it showed individual periodicities close to 365 days, consistent with endogenous regulation and entrainment by photoperiod. The timing of estrus did not correlate with female age or body mass. Males showed testicular regression during the rainy season, although there was high interindividual variation in testes size at any given point during the reproductive season. Furthermore, some individuals completed testicular regression earlier than others. Implications for polyestry are discussed. For comparative purposes, mouse lemurs were also trapped at two study sites in the Tsinjoarivo area: one in a forest fragment and the other within continuous forest. These forests are higher in altitude than the main study area at Ranomafana. Trapping success for mouse lemurs was lower at Tsinjoarivo than Ranomafana. Albeit preliminary, data from Tsinjoarivo suggest that females have lower reproductive success than do females at Ranomafana. Nevertheless, mouse lemurs in the Tsinjoarivo forest fragment did not appear to be in “poorer” condition than those in the continuous forest. It had been reported in the literature that western gray mouse lemurs captured in secondary forests have lower body masses and lower recapture rates than those captured in primary forest; in fact, the opposite was true of the mouse lemurs at Tsinjoarivo. I additionally collected data on a larger member of the family Cheirogaleidae, the dwarf lemurs (Cheirogaleus), which live in sympatry with Microcebus at Ranomafana and Tsinjoarivo. I analyzed the patterns of growth, development and reproduction in Cheirogaleus and Microcebus and compared dwarf and mouse lemurs to other similarly-sized prosimians which do not undergo torpor or hibernation. These comparisons draw attention to the unusual reproductive and metabolic strategies employed by cheirogaleids to cope with Madagascar’s unpredictable environments, which ultimately define their very unique life histories.

The "Knuckle-walking Hominin Hypothesis" postulates that there was a knuckle-walking phase during the transition from quadrupedalism to bipedalism. To address this question, previous research has focused on the search for a "signal" within the wrist, and metacarpals of extant knuckle walkers that can be used to infer this locomotor pattern in extinct hominins. To date, the examined features have not yielded a clear, non-contested signal. I explore the Knuckle-walking Hominin Hypothesis in two ways: 1. by examining the hand postures and the manual pressure application of Pan and Gorilla during knuckle walking to determine whether there are species specific differences and 2. by examining the internal and external morphology of the manual phalanges in an attempt to isolate a clear "knuckle-walking signal". Chimpanzees are more variable in their preferred contact digits, and use both hand positions with equal frequency ("palm-in" - palm facing toward the body and "palm-back" - palm facing posteriorly). In contrast, gorillas consistently make contact with all four digits 2-5, maintain a pronated arm, and use the palm-back hand position. In both taxa, hand position affects which digit acts as the final touch-off element and therefore receives maximum pressure in a given step, and digit 5 receives significantly less pressure than the other rays. Gorillas are, in effect, practicing a refined subset of the variety of knuckle-walking postures used by the more arboreal chimpanzees. A clear knuckle-walking signal is seen in both the external and internal morphology of the phalanges. Chimpanzees and gorillas have the same middle phalangeal curvature profile with the greatest curvature found in digit 5 (5 > 2 > 3 > 4), the element that receives the least amount of pressure. This phalangeal curvature profile is a feature not shared with any of the included taxa practicing different modes of locomotion. They also have similar Indices of Relative Curvature (IRC-middle phalangeal curvature/proximal phalangeal curvature) for digits 2-5 that clearly delineate them with "flatter" middle phalanges and more curved proximal phalanges (IRCs = ~0.85), from quadrupeds with more curved middle than proximal phalanges (IRCs > 1), and suspensory primates with higher and more equal curvature values for both elements (IRCs = ~1). This ability to differentiate between locomotor groups holds if the IRCs are composed of elements from different rays of the same manus and from elements of different individuals. Within the trabecular bone structure, knuckle walkers are differentiated from quadrupeds and suspsensory primates in 3 locations: the metacarpal head, and the proximal ends of the middle and proximal phalanges. In particular, the metacarpal head shows distinct differences between the groups: knuckle walkers have a palmar-dorsal alignment of trabeculae and disc-like shape, suspensory taxa have a proximodistal alignment and rod-like shape and quadrupeds have a proximodistal alignment and disc-like shape. The ability to differentiate between locomotor categories using isolated zones increases the applicability of these signals to a fragmentary and limited fossil record. The morphological similarities, specifically the shared curvature profile, and the similar knuckle-walking kinematics employed by chimpanzees and gorillas point to a shared origin of knuckle walking.

A surge in commercial wild mushroom extraction since the 1980s has precipitated a need for research that examines harvester culture and the ramifications to forest conservation. My research looks at harvest practices in two key areas of the Pacific Northwest: the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State, and Northwest Oregon. The primary data for this study were collected using ethnographic methods. Semistructured and informal interviews were performed with harvesters in fifteen months of fieldwork spanning six years. Additional interviews were also done with mushroom buyers, forest managers, law enforcement, and other stakeholders. Participant observation of harvester-associated activities included joining them in the forest to pick mushrooms, camping together, visiting their homes, and interacting in various social activities. Harvesters are a diverse group of people in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, class, and the physical distance that they travel in pursuit of mushrooms. Individuals typically harvest for a range of reasons beyond economic gain. Harvesters were found to have a strong connection to their patches as important physical places and in protecting the mushroom resource. Many engaged in investigating avenues of resource stewardship. An analysis of these findings using political ecology and common property theory concludes that trends in forest management such as restricting forest access through gates and regulations are stressing harvester culture and undermining stewardship attitudes and behaviors. This study contributes to anthropological knowledge by illustrating that, even in an industrialized country like the United States, individuals operating in social networks formed around resource extraction may develop attitudes and behaviors to mitigate resource degradation. This research comes at a critical juncture as forest management and policy are undergoing extensive revision; changes that are being influenced by a multitude of stakeholders concerned with how and for whom forests are managed. Mushroom harvesters have been largely absent from these debates and revisory processes. By looking at how mushroom harvesting is embedded in complex social systems of political, economic, and cultural opportunities and constraints, incentives, and disincentives, the study illuminates variables that act as restraints and influence the efficacy of forest policy and management. Through the use of ethnography and multilevel analysis, the views and lifeways of harvesters are partially revealed, and show why harvesters direct participation in forest management, policy, and scientific processes can improve and are probably essential to forest conservation efforts.

Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) is a pathological condition that primarily affects the spine. The focus of this study was to investigate the possible link between a diet rich in animal proteins and DISH using carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis, while also making observations on the development and underlying structure of the spinal manifestations of individuals diagnosed with DISH using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). This investigation into DISH was undertaken in three steps. Firstly, a macroscopic analysis of DISH was conducted to identify individuals diagnosed with DISH according to accepted diagnostic criteria from three cadaver-derived South African skeletal populations (including the Pretoria Bone Collection, The Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human skeletons, and the Kirsten Collection of Human remains). Secondly, stable isotope ratios (δ¹3C and δ¹⁵N) were measured from human bone collagen samples (rib and femur), to investigate the relationship between diet and DISH, specifically a diet high in animal protein. The isotopic values (δ¹3C and δ¹⁵N respectively) were compared for both the rib and femur samples jointly and separately, between the DISH group and a control group, to see if differences existed according to sex, ancestry, BMI, BMI and ancestry combined and collection source. Thirdly, the underlying structure associated with the calcification/ossification associated with DISH (in the spine) was assessed using micro-CT scanning. Across all three skeletal collections, 127 (77% male and 23% female) individuals had characteristics associated with DISH (3.3%), with no difference in prevalence between males and females. DISH was found to be most prevalent among white South African males, indicating something (perhaps genetic or cultural) within the group, giving rise to their propensity to developing the disease. No association between BMI classification and prevalence of DISH was found. Stable isotope analysis indicated that while individuals with DISH generally had elevated δ15N values, but δ15N was also high among the control group, with both groups displaying a mean of 13.0‰. Most black South Africans diagnosed with DISH were enriched in δ¹3C, but relatively depleted in δ¹⁵N, while the white and coloured South Africans showed a positive correlation between δ¹⁵N enrichment and δ¹3C enrichment. Within the DISH group, overweight individuals were generally more enriched in δ¹⁵N and depleted in δ¹³C, while the underweight individuals were more enriched in δ¹³C and depleted in δ¹⁵N. The isotope analyses presents a complex narrative between diet and DISH. While elevated δ15N values among individuals diagnosed with DISH could be interpreted as consumption of animal protein, it was not exclusive to those with DISH and was also noted in non-DISH individuals. Any variations in the δ¹3C and δ15N values found between the DISH and control groups are most likely reflecting different dietary patterns, associated with temporal changes, cultural practices, religious and economic factors, independent of DISH. Observations from the micro-CT scans corroborate some of the clinical interpretations within the literature, such as flowing ossification being limited to the right lateral portion in the anterior aspect of contiguous vertebrae (except in one case where situs inversus was a possibility) and retention of the intervertebral disc space. In contrast to the literature, a possible erosive/inflammatory process was noted in the spinal development of DISH, preceding new bone formation. This was characterised by the destruction of the original vertebral wall underneath the fluid ossification/new bone formation. In summary, the finding from the micro-CT scans is worth further exploration in future research, while the isotopic analysis lends no support to the theory that the presence of DISH is associated with a diet high in protein. / Thesis (PhD (Anatomy))--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Anatomy / PhD (Anatomy) / Unrestricted

No description available.

Food choices can create and maintain group membership, also distinguishing groups based on dietary preferences and the perceived social value of foods. The food behaviors of social elites within complex societies are often governed by differential access and cultural factors determining the menu within a regional ecology. This study employs bioarchaeological and stable isotopic analyses to investigate the evidence for dietary variation of social elites within the Late Horizon (A.D. 1470–1532) cemetery of Huaca Las Abejas at Túcume using stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes. Paired teeth (early life diet) and bones (later life diet) were sampled from 23 individuals to examine consistency in food behaviors related to age, biological sex, and change over the life course. In total, 25 bone collagen, 33 bone apatite, 32 dentin collagen, and 30 enamel apatite samples were analyzed (n=120). Results suggest a mixed diet containing a high proportion of C4 resources and a dietary protein source elevated in δ13C. This research revealed statistically significant differences between bone and tooth δ15N and δ13Csc, adult and juvenile dentin δ15N and δ13Ccol, male and female bone δ15N, δ13Ccol, and dentin δ13Ccol. Paired tissues displayed statistically significant differences between δ15N and δ13Csc. The results of this multi-isotope and multi-tissue study indicate individual dietary patterns shifted through life and gendered dietary variation existed at Túcume during the Late Horizon. These results enhance the limited published isotopic literature on Andean Late Horizon north coast dietary variation, offering new insight into the food behaviors of social elites living under Inca administration.

Bioarchaeological analysis can help identify patterns of mortuary ritual and social experience of ancient Maya peoples. However, there is limited bioarchaeological and mortuary evidence for the relationship between the development of social complexity and social experience. Particularly, how is social organization reflected in patterns of burial practice and skeletal markers of stress. This thesis uses osteobiographies to contextualize the mortuary and biological profiles of 20 individuals interred at the Maya site of Holtun, Guatemala to examine bioarchaeological variation during the Preclassic (800 B.C. – 250 A.D.) and Late Classic (550 A.D. – 900 A.D.) periods. This work highlights the integration of comparative osteobiographic analyses from small samples into the exploration of individual identities and social experiences. By incorporating architectural contexts, mortuary evidence, and osteology, the individual becomes the focus of study. When each individual is examined for mortuary features, sex, age, and evidence of stress, these lives in focus become salient portraits of ancient humans as complex social beings with intertwined identities at Holtun, essentially deploying a bioarchaeology of personhood. Results of this thesis identified common trends of the mortuary program and biological health status of individuals throughout the chronology of Holtun. Individuals were most commonly interred in simple graves or cists in an extended supine position with head oriented to the north. Additionally, very few indicators of childhood stress or systemic pathology were identified, though females at Holtun seemed to disproportionately suffer from carious lesions compared to males. In addition to these trends, evidence for intentional body modification, individual mortuary assemblages, and daily activity stress markers all indicate variation in the social identities of these individuals. Overall, this study affirms the strength that a small sample can have in contributing to the exploration of social organization and identity reflected through a contextualized osteobiographic approach. These results enhance our understanding of increasing mortuary and biological variation during the Preclassic and Late Classic period southern Maya lowlands, and offer new insight into the complex development of social organization and individual social experience at Holtun, Guatemala.

Alzheimer's disease is a prevalent disease that affects roughly 5.4 million individuals each year (Fisher et al., 2018). Understanding the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease within the bioarchaeological record can help anthropologists gain an understanding of a population's health while also understanding the potential social ramifications. Trace element analysis is a valuable tool that allows bioarchaeologists to gain insight into individuals' health and development within the context of the past. In bioarchaeological studies, hair analysis has been used to map the nutritional status and migration patterns of individuals of past peoples, with recent studies focusing on disease prevalence. Analysis of hair as a biosource of information for trace element analysis is highly useful for various reasons such as its ability to withstand taphonomic processes, the high concentration of elements within its structure, and the expanded time frame of an individual's life it represents. This study uses ICP-MS to conduct the trace element analysis of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), selenium (Se), and aluminum (Al) to create a profile of hair from 13 bioarchaeological individuals from Romano-Christian Kellis 2 cemetery) in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt and 13 modern individuals from the Florida State Willed Body Program at The University of Central Florida Medical School with confirmed or suspected Alzheimer's disease to conduct a comparative analysis between the two samples. High levels of the aforementioned elements have been noted as resulting in a high toxicity level within the brains of individuals with Alzheimer's disease (Dormandy, 1989). Results indicate that eight individuals from Kellis may have had neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and mood disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, and ADD/ADHD). Additionally, health profiles for each individual from Kellis were constructed and show the possibility of other pathological conditions such as cardiovascular disease, kidney/liver disease, anemia, and diabetes mellitus. This research provides a deeper understanding of health and illness in the Dakhleh Oasis during the Romano-Christian period, in conjunction with a holistic understanding of the social care practices as discussed through the theoretical framework of the Bioarchaelogy of Care theory.