Previous data in our lab demonstrated an inability to induce oral tolerance when using a feeding needle gavage for 14 days. Given that the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the site of antigen introduction, and the interplay between immune cells of the mucosal tissues, we questioned if inflammation in this tissue, induced by physical trauma, would affect oral tolerance induction. We performed studies on Balb/c mice using a needle gavage or syringe feeding method followed by doses of the immunogenic protein ovalbumin (OVA) to induce tolerance. Immunohistochemistry was used to assess inflammation in esophageal tissues and to correlate with an ability or inability to induce tolerance. Non-cellular alterations within the tissue were also assessed using a pathology grading score. Although fluctuations in cell populations were observed in both the syringe and gavage treated mice, the needle gavage caused significant noncellular damage to esophageal mucosal tissue, which is the most likely cause of failed tolerance induction to the OVA. / Department of Biology

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of: 1) caffeine consumption; 2) Body Mass Index (BMI); and 3) frequency and intensity of physical activity on the frequency and severity of hot flashes, in pre-menopausal, peri-menopausal, menopausal and post-menopausal Hispanic women. Ordinary Least Squares regressions indicated there was a statistical significant correlation between daily total estimated caffeine intake with frequency (R2=0.078 (F(8, 207)=2.2, P=0.029) and severity of hot flashes (R2=0.086 (F(8, 208)=2.45, P=0.015). Analysis of variance revealed that and increase in frequency of 30 min strength physical activity reduced severity of hot flashes by 0.72 on a hedonic scale (p<0.05). Conversely, caffeine intake of 100 mg increased frequency and severity of hot flashes (p<0.001, p=0.004, respectively). / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences

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Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only. / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

We have previously shown that non-specific blockade of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes in skeletal muscle eliminates the normal increase in muscle protein synthesis following resistance exercise. The current study tested the hypothesis that this COX-mediated increase in postexercise muscle protein synthesis is specifically regulated by the COX-2 isoform. Sixteen males (23 ± 1 yr, 177 ± 2 cm, 81.5 ± 3.4 kg) were randomly assigned to one of two groups that received three doses of either a specific COX-2 inhibitor (celecoxib; 200 mg per dose, 600 mg total) or a placebo during the 24 hours following a single bout of resistance exercise with the knee extensors. Skeletal muscle fractional synthesis rate (FSR) was measured at rest and 24 hours postexercise using a primed constant infusion of [2H5]phenylalanine coupled with muscle biopsies of the vastus lateralis. Mixed muscle FSR was increased following exercise to a greater extent (206%, P<0.05) in the COX-2 group (0.052 ± 0.014 %Ih) as compared with the placebo group (0.017 ± 0.007 %Ih). These results suggest that the specific inhibition of the COX-2 isoform in human skeletal muscle causes a compensatory response in muscle protein synthesis. These data also highlight the involvement of the cyclooxygenase pathways in the regulation of muscle protein synthesis following resistance exercise. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among levels of trait and state anxiety, self-confidence, arousal and performance of athletes throughout a competition. A secondary purpose was to examine the usefulness of a variety of instruments used to obtain levels of anxiety, self-confidence, arousal, and performance. Trait anxiety was measured by the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) (Martens, 1990) and levels of state anxiety and selfconfidence were measured using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) (Martens, 1990). Pre-game and game arousal levels were distinguished by monitoring heart rates via heart rate monitors. Performance of each athlete was evaluated by the head coach. An overall rating or score was determined through the use of a Performance Rating Inventory which was developed specifically for this study.Thirteen members of the Ball State Field Hockey Team, ranging in ages from 18-22 years, agreed to participate in this study. Data was collected for 19 competitions from their regular season schedule. The SCAT was administered to the athletes in a non-competitive environment_ to determine trait anxiety levels. Levels of state anxiety (cognitive and somatic), self-confidence, arousal, and performance were obtained for every competition played.Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was used to determine the relationship among levels of trait and state anxiety and arousal to playing performance. Overall, there was no statistically significant relationships found among these levels. A follow-up analysis examined the data by the three most competitive and three least competitive games of the season. Group means were graphed according to pre-game and game arousal and no significant difference was shown between the two levels of competitiveness. Group means of the three subscales of the CSAI-2 (cognitive, somatic and self-confidence) were also graphed. Cognitive and somatic state anxiety levels were at its highest and self-confidence was at its lowest for the more competitive games and cognitive and somatic state anxiety were at its lowest and self-confidence was at its highest for the least competitive games. As a result of these findings, physiologically the athletes approached both types of games similarly. The difference was in the mental approach which ultimately could of been the difference in a win or a loss. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between increased physical fitness and learning disabled student's self-concept, anxiety level. and academic achievement. 34 learning disabled students in seventh arr. eighth grade (X age = 14 years, 7 months) were divided equally into comparison and treatment groups. For six weeks, the comparison and treatment groups maintained similiar class schedules with the exception that the treatment group was assigned to a physical education class where the students would partake in an aerobic exercise program (i.e. running and aerobics) and the comparison group remained in study hall. All 34 LD students were pretested and posttested using the 12 Minute Walk/Run Test. Piers-Harris Self- Concept Scale for_ Children, Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, and Wide Ranae Achievement Test-Revised.Four null hypotheses were tested using multivariate any, univariate analysis. The .05 level of significance was Mary Beth Hulecki Ed.D Ball State University, 1988 established as the critical probability level for the non acceptance of the statistical hypotheses.FindingsResults of multivariate analyses indicate: that no significant differences existed between the comparison and treatment groups on measures of IQ. self-concept. and anxiety. Results of multivariate analyses of pre-and posttest measures of the independent variable under study indicated that no significant differences existed between the comparison and treatment groups on measures of IQ. self-concept.and anxiety. Results of univariate analyses found no significant differences between the treatment and comparison groups after the physical fitness program on the independent measures of self-concept and anxiety level. Significant differences (p < .05) between the treatment and comparison groups were noted after intervention on measures of achievement and fitness. These results were observe: to be significant in the area of reading (p <.001).ConclusionsThe results of this study did not support theories that Suggested an increase in physical fitness Produced higher Self-concepts and decreased the anxiety level of learning disabled children. Although the LD students significantly raised their achievement scores, their anxiety level did not lessen and their self-concept scores were no higher after the running program. Several possible explanations are offered for consideration:1. Although achievement scores were higher after Intervention, they were still 2 or more standard deviations below the mean. These LD students were still functioning like mildly mentally handicapped students and were still far below the functioning level of their normal achieving peers. 2. As cited by other authors, LD students often try to portray themselves in a better light and do not accurately report their feelings.3. Underachievers were thought to respond unreliably on measures of self-concept. / Department of Special Education

The general purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between neuropsychological tests scores and perfusion deficits, based upon measures of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) taken from the single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scans of patients suffering from dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT). The study was designed to determine if DAT patients categorized as having left hemisphere, right hemisphere, diffuse, or an absence of perfusion deficits, as measured by SPECT, would be accurately grouped into their respective categories, and if they would exhibit the corresponding neuropsychological deficiencies usually associated with lateral hemispheric asymmetries.Selected subjects were 80 right handed, DAT patients from the North Broward Medical Center - Memory Disorder Center, in Pompono Beach, Florida, who had been administered a neuropsychological test battery, and a SPECT scan.Through several ANOVA's that were calculated for each of the neuropsychological variables, it was concluded that DAT patients who suffered from perfusion deficits exhibited significantly lower levels of neuropsychological functioning than DAT patients without perfusion deficits.These analyses revealed significantly lower levels of neuropsychological performance in the perfusion deficit group on the combination of left hemisphere WAIS-R subtests (Information, Similarities & Vocabulary), WMS - Logical Story (p < .01), WRAT-R Reading, WRAT-R Mathematics, WMS Paired Associates, and the Rey Complex Figure (p < .05).A separate step-wise discriminant function analysis indicated that a combination of the neuropsychological variables could not accurately classify the DAT patients into their respective right hemisphere, left hemisphere, diffuse, or absence of perfusion deficit groups. The discriminant function classified only 32.5% of the grouped cases accurately. Of the original thirteen neuropsychological variables, only Paired Associates immediate recall of the WMS entered the discriminant analysis equation. This accounted for only 23% of the total variability that could be explained by differences between the perfusion deficit groups. In several post hoc ANOVA's using the Bonferroni method of multiple comparisons, it was revealed that the absence of perfusion deficit group scored significantly higher than the other groups on the majority of the left hemisphere neuropsychological measures. However, none of the right hemisphere neuropsychological measures attained significance. / Department of Educational Psychology

Collagen content and cross-linking are believed to be major determinants of tendon structural integrity and function. Gender and chronic resistance training have been shown to alter tendon function, and may also alter these key structural features of tendon. Patellar tendon biopsies were taken from untrained men (M, n=8, 25±1 y, 1RM: 53±3 kg), untrained women (W, n=8, 23±2 y, 1RM: 29±2 kg), and resistance-trained (10±1 y trained) men (RTM, n=8, 24±2 y, 1RM: 71 ±6 kg). Biopsies were analyzed for dry mass, collagen content, and collagen cross-linking (hydroxylysylpyridinoline, HP). Tendon dry mass was significantly lower in women than men (M: 376±8, W: 343±5 µg dry mass/mg tendon wet wt, P<0.01), and was not influenced by chronic resistance training (RTM: 364±20 µg dry mass/mg tendon wet wt, P>0.05). The lower tendon dry mass in women reduced (P=0.08) collagen content per tendon wet weight (M: 339±14, W: 306±11 µg collagen/mg tendon wet wt). Collagen content of tendon dry mass was not influenced by gender (P>0.05) or resistance training (P>0.05) (M: 903±38, W: 892±29, RTM: 881±43 !,g collagen/mg tendon dry mass). Similarly, cross-linking of collagen was not impacted by gender (P>0.05) or training (P>0.05) (M: 401±47, W: 418±35, RTM: 424±38 mmol HP/mol collagen). In women, the overall lower amount of collagen per tendon wet weight may explain gender differences in tendon function, while collagen content and cross-linking of the dry mass are remarkably consistent across gender and training status. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

Age-related bone loss is a serious public health problem affecting 15 to 20 million people in the United States (1). In the last decade, several studies have investigated the effects of repeated bouts of exercise on bone density. Although this increase in bone density is mediated via hormones and/or cellular metabolites few studies have linked the increase in bone density with changes in these hormones or metabolites. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a single bout of weight bearing exercise on the growth factors that alter bone metabolism. Seven healthy female subjects (age 23 ± 5 yrs.) agreed to participate in this study. A V02 max test was administered to each subject to determine their overall fitness level. A treadmill speed corresponding to 70% of their V02 max was then developed and the subjects ran for 40 minm on the treadmill at that speed. Blood samples were drawn pre and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, and 60 min post-exercise and assayed for serum growth hormone, calcium, parathyroid hormone, and alkaline phosphatase. No significant change was found in parathyroid hormone, calcium, or alkaline phosphatase serum levels. Growth hormone was found to be significantly decreased 30, 45, and 60 min. post-exercise as compared to pre-exercise levels (7.089, 5.399, 4.728, and 11.28 ng/mL, respectively). While this indicates that exercise may cause a depression in growth hormone levels during recovery, the elevated pre-exercise levels of three of the seven subjects masked the exercise stimulated release of growth hormone. Growth hormone stimulates bone absorption via insulin-like growth factors and the GH data suggests that these hormones may have been released well after our last measurement time point. In conchusion, 40 minutes of running exercise at 70% of V02 max does not produce a change in any of the hormones or metabolic factors directly associated with calcium turnover in the bone, suggesting that acute exercise has no immediate effect on bone metabolism. However, the exercise protocol did stimulate GH release which influences bone growth indirectly by its ability to regulate IGF release. Therefore, even though no acute effects were evident, a single bout of exercise may alter the long term control of bone metabolism. / School of Physical Education