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A series of experiments was carried out to clarify the effects of morphine (0.3 - 10 mg/kg) on intracranial self-stimulation (ICS) and to compare these with the effects of the stimulant amphetamine on this behavior. It was shown that the enhancement of ICS by morphine requires repeated drug exposure, is prevented by pre-exposure to the drug in a non-ICS context, is mimicked by administration of vehicle, and is not reliably reversed by naloxone. In contrast, facilitation of ICS by amphetamine was immediate and remained stable over repeated days of testing. It was concluded that ICS facilitation induced by morphine, but not by amphetamine, is largely the outcome of a learned association between the drug effect and the ICS procedure, and does not appear to be a direct, opiate receptor-mediated effect. Finally, 6-OHDA lesions of ventral tegmental dopamine neurons were shown to block the facilitation of ICS by morphine but not by amphetamine. These lesions were also shown to delay the development of tolerance to morphine-induced catalepsy.

Birds nest under electric and magnetic fields (EMFs) generated by transmission liners which may affect their reproductive success and/or melatonin governing their circadian and circannual cycles. Over two years, captive kestrels were used to determine whether EMFs affect their plasma melatonin concentrations and their reproductive success. EMFs were equivalent to that which wild kestrels are exposed to while nesting under 735 kV transmission fines, and daily exposure used in the captive study (88--98% time budget) was potentially equivalent to that of wild kestrels (90% X, 80% X). Captive kestrels were housed in control or EMF conditions to determine short-term (one season; S-EMF) and longer-term EMF (two seasons; L-EMF) effects. / Plasma melatonin in adult EMF males was suppressed at 42 d and elevated at 70 d of EMF exposure compared to controls. Melatonin levels in EMF males at mid-season were similar to controls at season's end, suggesting a seasonal phase-shift. Melatonin was suppressed in L-EMF fledgling birds but not in adult females or nudes (1995) at 70 d. Plasm melatonin, higher in adult males than females at 70 d post-pairing, was not directly associated with body mass changes in kestrels. / Captive EMF birds were more active and alert but groomed less often than controls. EMF exposure affected reproductive success of kestrels. Fertility and fledging success were higher, and hatching success lower in S-EMF clutches. Hatching success was higher, but fledging success lower in L-EMF clutches. In S-EMF clutches, mean egg volume and mass were greater, eggs had slightly more albumen but thinner eggshells, and embryos were larger than controls. L-EMF hatchlings were heavier than controls. / The melatonin results for male kestrels indicate that kestrels perceive EMFs as light, thus altering their photoperiod. Photoperiodic manipulations advance molt onset, which is associated with increased body mass in male kestrels. S-EMF males were heavier at 56 d of exposure when molt began, but this was unlikely related to feed intake winch was unchanged. EMF exposure had no effect on body mass and pectoral muscle scores of reproducing females. The sexually-dimorphic response in body mass and melatonin concentrations suggests that male kestrels may be more sensitive to EMF exposure than females.

Controversy exists concerning the role that dopamine plays in analgesia. In the present studies, dopamine agonists produced analgesia, and D-amphetamine potentiated morphine analgesia, while treatment with 6-hydroxydopamine or mixed or selective D1 and D2 dopamine receptor antagonists attenuated or abolished morphine and D-amphetamine-induced analgesia, in the formalin test. Furthermore, microinjection of morphine into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and ventral striatum produced analgesia, while intra-VTA microinjection of naloxone methylbromide antagonized the analgesia produced by systemic morphine, in the formalin test. In contrast, similar manipulations of dopamine had little or no effect in the tail flick test. Thus, dopamine appears to play a facilitatory role in formalin test analgesia, and there appear to be fundamental differences between the formalin and tail flick tests and parallels between the role of dopamine in the formalin test and in clinical pain, the vocalization after-discharge test and reward.

While a great deal of research has been directed towards the phenomena of excess post exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC), the effect of thermal stress on EPOC is not well defined. To assess the effect of heat stress on EPOC, seven healthy, active subjects (4 female, 3 male; 23.9 ± 2.0 years of age) performed 4 trials: one control (quiet rest) and one exercise (45 minutes of cycling at 65% VO2max workload) trial in moderate (23° C, 50% humidity) and hot (35° C, 50% humidity) environments. Oxygen consumption (V02), heart rate (HR) and rectal temperature (RT) were assessed pre, during and post control or exercise. Subjects were monitored until post exercise VO2 had returned to within ±2% of baseline. EPOC was determined by subtracting baseline VO2 from total V02 during the post exercise period. During the first 15 minutes (acute) post exercise, a significant EPOC (p = 0.0019) was seen in both exercise conditions over both control conditions. During the slow phase (> 15 minutes post exercise to baseline), there was no significant difference between the hot control (HC), moderate exercise (ME), or hot exercise (HE) EPOC. Total time post exercise until baseline was achieved was 35, 44, and 51 minutes for HC, ME, and HE respectively. HR was significantly elevated in both exercise conditions. During the acute post exercise period, HR in HE was elevated above MC, ME and HC (p < 0.05). RT was elevated in both exercise conditions during and post exercise. The present data indicate that heat stress does not have a significant effect on the magnitude or duration of EPOC. / School of Physical Education

Eight well-trained male and female cyclists were studied to determine the effect of sodium and/or water intake on plasma aldosterone during six hours of cycling (55% VO2max) in a warm environment (Tdb = 350C WBGT = 30°C). Each subject randomly completed three trials (water = W; saline = S and no fluid = NF) at one week intervals. Venous blood samples were obtained before dehydration, at 2, 4, 5 and 6 hours during exercise, and also after dehydration. Plasma samples were analyzed for hemoglobin, sodium, potassium, aldosterone and osmolality. Sweat and urine samples were also collected and analyzed for sodium content. Plasma volume based on hemoglobin decreased significantly ( P < 0.01 ) at 15 min in all three trials (Trial W = -7.6%±1.12%; Trial S = -8.6%±1.42% and Trial NF = -6.7%±0.88%) and continued to decrease significantly in Trial NF during exercise ( -10.99% ± 1.3% at the 2th hr; -15.5% ±1.3% at the 4th hr and -16.8%±1.32% at the 5th hr).No significant differences were found betwee trials. Plasma sodium concentration [Na+] decreased over time in Trials W and S and increased in Trial NF due to plasma volume loss. Significant differences in [ Na+ ] were found between Trial NF and Trials W or S. Plasma sodium [Na+ ] adjusted by plasma volume change decreased significantly at 2 hours ( P < 0.01) in the three trials. Average total sodium content of plasma decreased by 125.9 mEq during Trial S, 223.1 mEq during Trial W and 147.1 mEq during Trial NF. Plasma potassium increased significantly (P < 0.01) at 2 hours in all three trials. Plasma osmolality increased significantly (P < 0.01) during prolonged exercise (Trial W = 287.1±2.4 mEq/l; Trial S = 289.4±1.17 mEq/1 and Trial NF = 306±1.6 mEq/1). No significant differences were found between Trials W and S although osmolality was lower in Trial W than in Trial S. A significant difference in osmolality was obtained between Trial NF and Trials W and S (P < 0.01). Plasma aldosterone increased significantly (P < 0.01) during exercise and decreased after exercise. No significant differences existed between Trials W and S although aldosterone levels were lower in Trial S than in Trial W. However, a significant difference was found between Trial NF and Trials W or S. The results of this study suggest that plasma aldosterone has an inverse relationship with plasma volume changes and total sodium concentrations. An increase in plasma potassium and a decrease in plasma sodium during prolonged exercise in a warm environment significantly enhanced plasma aldosterone concentration. The intake of water significantly decreased plasma aldosterone during prolonged exercise in a warm environment, but the intake of sodium had no significant effect in this study. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of androstenedione supplementation on testosterone levels in older men. Healthy men (n = 11) between the ages of58 and 69 were divided into two groups: 6 taking 300 mg of androstenedione (mean ± SE, 62.33 ± 2.57) supplement and 5 taking the 300 mg cellulose placebo (mean ± SE, 60.2 ± 1.02) for a period of seven days. Subjects in both groups had been participating in the Ball State University Adult Fitness Program (BSUAFP) for at least one year, incorporating both aerobic and resistance training into their workouts. Testing measures involved the subjects performing two exercises (leg extension and leg curl) while having blood drawn prior to, during, and post-exercise for a period of 20 minutes both pre-and post-supplementation. Specific weights for the subjects were determined with a ten-repetition maximum (10-RM) lift on both exercises. It appeared that the subjects in the androstenedione group were stronger with the exercises than the subjects in the placebo group, but with no significance. Testosterone, estradiol, and androstenedione were analyzed via hormone assay pre-and post-supplementation. The analysis of the testosterone revealed a significant difference pre-(mean ± SE, 4.65 ± .51 ng/ml) to post-(mean ± SE, 6.72 ± .58 ng/ml) supplementation for the androstenedione group. Analysis of the androstenedione revealed a significant difference pre-(mean ± SE, 0.88 ± .20) to post-(mean ± SE, 7.46 ± 1.25) supplementation for the androstenedione group. The estradiol assay revealed no significant differences pre-to post-supplementation for either group. The placebo group did not demonstrate any significant differences pre-to post-supplementation for either testosterone or androstenedione. The results of this study concluded that supplementation with 300 mg. of androstenedione for a period of seven days significantly elevated blood testosterone in older men. / School of Physical Education

The study was designed to determine what type of potentiation,.if any, occurred between caffeine and acetazolamide. Caffeine (75 mg/kg) and/or acetazolamide (200, 1000, or 1500 mg/kg) were administered to pregnant C57BL/6J dams on day 9 of gestation. Fetuses were removed on the eighteenth day of gestation via cesarean section and examined for gross morphological malformations using a Bausch & Lomb SKV1070P dissecting microscope. Treatment with HD-ACZM and HD+CAFF resulted in a reduction of fetal weight. Maternal exposure to MD-ACZM and HD-ACZM caused a statistically significant (P < .001) and dose-dependent increase in the percent of C57BL/6J fetuses with ectrodactyly along with increased severity of the defects displayed (relative to controls). An increase in the number of ectrodactylous fetuses and the severity of defects was also observed in all groups administered caffeine and acetazolamide, reaching statistical significance in the MD+CAFF and HD+CAFF groups (P < .001). Because potentiation of the teratogenic effects of acetazolamide was exhibited only in the MD+CAFF vs. MD-ACZM groups, the type of potentiation occurring between caffeine and acetazolamide can not be determined. / Department of Physiology and Health Science

The influence of caffeine on the metabolic and catecholamine responses to mild exercise in a cold and a warm environment was studied in eight healthy males. The subjects performed 60 minutes of cycling at 50% VO2max in a cold environment (5°C and 70% relative humidity) and a warm environment (28°C and 50% relative humidity) 30 minutes after ingesting caffeine (5mg/kg body weight) or placebo (dextrose). Caffeine ingestion prior to exercise in the warm environment resulted in increased plasma epinephrine, with no effect on plasma norepinephrine. Neither lipid nor carbohydrate metabolism was altered by caffeine in the warm trial. Exercise in the cold environment (placebo) produced increased oxygen consumption and carbohydrate metabolism, decreased lipid metabolism, and no difference in plasma catecholamines compared with the warm-placebo trial. Responses to the combination of caffeine ingestion and the cold environment did not differ from cold-placebo responses in oxygen consumption or respiratory exchange ratio during the cycling bout. However, in the cold-caffeine trial plasma epinephrine was elevated. In addition, fat oxidation, serum free fatty acids, and serum glycerol were elevated in the cold-caffeine condition. Carbohydrate oxidation was depressed, while serum glucose and blood lactate were elevated in this trial. The results of this study indicate that caffeine increases plasma epinephrine; cold increases oxygen consumption and carbohydrate metabolism, while decreasing lipid metabolism; and the combination of caffeine and cold during exercise increases plasma epinephrine and lipid metabolism, but decreases carbohydrate metabolism. / Human Performance Laboratory

The conductor of a large instrumental ensemble is constantly confronted with the task of detecting and correcting rhythm and pitch performance errors in daily rehearsals. The purpose of this investigation was to design a computer-assisted instruction program for error detection skills development and then evaluate this program's effectiveness in training beginning conductors to identify rhythm and pitch errors within 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-voice synthesized music excerpts from the existing band literature. The transfer of error detection skills from synthesized to acoustic sounds also was explored indirectly by virtue of utilizing taped excerpts from wind band performances to assess error detection skills.Subjects (N=24) in this study were drawn from the pool of undergraduate instrumental music education majors at Ball State University and were randomly assigned to control treatment groups prior to the administration of the Acoustic Error Detection Skills Inventory. Following this pretest, the treatment group used the Computer Error Detection Skills Program for approximately eight hours during an eight week treatment period. At the end of the treatment period, and control and treatment groups were administered the Acoustic Error Detection Skills Inventory posttest.The data were analyzed using a series of one-way, repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess pretest to posttest changes in subjects' scores on the Acoustic Error Detection Skills Inventory. Composite scores (reflecting general skill in error detection) improved significantly for the treatment group (p = .007), while the pretest to posttest gain for the control group was not statistically significant (p = .232). These results suggest that the Computer Error Detection Skills Program was effective in enhancing subjects' rhythm and pitch error detection skills and the viability of using synthesized sound sources for training was confirmed.The following recommendations were made: (1) Jazz directors need to do more listening to jazz music, (2) band directors who direct jazz programs should join IAJE, (3) jazz ensembles shouldtheir own improvisational skills, and rehearse in the fall, (4) jazz ensemble directors should develop (5) jazz ensemble directors should have their students sing their parts during rehearsals for increased learning efficiency and retention. / Human Performance Laboratory