Providing clean water remains a challenge in many African countries. Ethiopia, with the second largest population in Africa is also faced with this predicament. Efforts to improve supply have focused on abstracting groundwater. Although relatively cheaper to utilize, groundwater is prone to contamination, from improperly disposed of waste, particularly urban areas with no appropriate sanitation services. The city of Addis Ababa is faced with this difficult situation. Currently about 75 % of the population of Addis Ababa has access to sanitation in the form of pit latrines, while 0.6 % has access to sewerage services. The rest of the population is considered to have no access. This proliferation of pit latrines in the city has enhanced the risk of groundwater contamination. This research was initiated with the objective of assessing the temporal and spatial extent of contamination of groundwater due to human waste. It attempted to review the quality of water in deep wells and springs. The data analyzed indicates that the temporal and spatial extent of contamination has increased over the past few decades. Over abstraction of groundwater has also been observed. Whilst contaminant levels such as nitrates and chlorides in many wells are below maximum permissible values, few wells in the centre of the city have exhibited higher values. This steady temporal increase may soon make some wells unsuitable for human consumption. Efforts to reduce this risk will need to focus on sewerage services provision, review of existing environmental policy, public awareness drive and sustainable groundwater management. / D.Phil. (Environmental Science)

The Barrage informal settlement (BIS) is a peri-urban community of about 300 people resident on private land close to the banks of the Vaal River in Gauteng South Africa. The study focuses on the living and sanitation conditions in which people find themselves. Measured against the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) BIS and its residents clearly are far from meeting MDG 7 target 7 C. For the purposes of this study the researcher investigated ecological sanitation (EcoSan) as an alternative solution for the current local sanitation conundrum. Residents either use the veld or a dysfunctional pit system. The data used for the project was generated both in a qualitative and quantitative mode. Semi-structured interviews were randomly conducted. Participants were requested and subsequently assisted in completing a questionnaire. There were also several focus group discussions for gathering relevant data. The researcher tried to form an impression of the perceptions of community members in terms on the type of sanitation system they wished to use. Community members actively engaged in strategies aimed to find out how they perceive sanitation, potable water supply and matters of hygiene. The findings revealed dissatisfaction regarding to current conditions in BIS. Residents are uncertain because the land on which they reside on does not belong to them. This, in turn, creates uncertainty and feelings of insecurity, about the relevance of a potential water-based sanitation system. At the same time members of the community indicated they had no interest in a dry toilet system. Neither are they keen on the use of community ablution blocks (CABs) as alternative. Residents showed no willingness and are also not prepared to pay for sanitation because they cannot afford it. The dilemma is that residents are at the mercy of Emfuleni Local Municipality (ELM) and the private owners of the land on which they reside. Where do we find the solution to all of the issues? Participatory deliberation strategies were used to determine which system of sanitation local residents preferred. They clearly came out in favour of the Water Bank concept as a feasible sanitation system option. However, as a result of the unfulfilled promises of Emfuleni Local Municipality (ELM) and landowners the community remains in a state of uncertainty about the permanence of the BIS.

The Barrage informal settlement (BIS) is a peri-urban community of about 300 people resident on private land close to the banks of the Vaal River in Gauteng South Africa. The study focuses on the living and sanitation conditions in which people find themselves. Measured against the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) BIS and its residents clearly are far from meeting MDG 7 target 7 C. For the purposes of this study the researcher investigated ecological sanitation (EcoSan) as an alternative solution for the current local sanitation conundrum. Residents either use the veld or a dysfunctional pit system. The data used for the project was generated both in a qualitative and quantitative mode. Semi-structured interviews were randomly conducted. Participants were requested and subsequently assisted in completing a questionnaire. There were also several focus group discussions for gathering relevant data. The researcher tried to form an impression of the perceptions of community members in terms on the type of sanitation system they wished to use. Community members actively engaged in strategies aimed to find out how they perceive sanitation, potable water supply and matters of hygiene. The findings revealed dissatisfaction regarding to current conditions in BIS. Residents are uncertain because the land on which they reside on does not belong to them. This, in turn, creates uncertainty and feelings of insecurity, about the relevance of a potential water-based sanitation system. At the same time members of the community indicated they had no interest in a dry toilet system. Neither are they keen on the use of community ablution blocks (CABs) as alternative. Residents showed no willingness and are also not prepared to pay for sanitation because they cannot afford it. The dilemma is that residents are at the mercy of Emfuleni Local Municipality (ELM) and the private owners of the land on which they reside. Where do we find the solution to all of the issues? Participatory deliberation strategies were used to determine which system of sanitation local residents preferred. They clearly came out in favour of the Water Bank concept as a feasible sanitation system option. However, as a result of the unfulfilled promises of Emfuleni Local Municipality (ELM) and landowners the community remains in a state of uncertainty about the permanence of the BIS.

Providing clean water remains a challenge in many African countries. Ethiopia, with the second largest population in Africa is also faced with this predicament. Efforts to improve supply have focused on abstracting groundwater. Although relatively cheaper to utilize, groundwater is prone to contamination, from improperly disposed of waste, particularly urban areas with no appropriate sanitation services. The city of Addis Ababa is faced with this difficult situation. Currently about 75 % of the population of Addis Ababa has access to sanitation in the form of pit latrines, while 0.6 % has access to sewerage services. The rest of the population is considered to have no access. This proliferation of pit latrines in the city has enhanced the risk of groundwater contamination. This research was initiated with the objective of assessing the temporal and spatial extent of contamination of groundwater due to human waste. It attempted to review the quality of water in deep wells and springs. The data analyzed indicates that the temporal and spatial extent of contamination has increased over the past few decades. Over abstraction of groundwater has also been observed. Whilst contaminant levels such as nitrates and chlorides in many wells are below maximum permissible values, few wells in the centre of the city have exhibited higher values. This steady temporal increase may soon make some wells unsuitable for human consumption. Efforts to reduce this risk will need to focus on sewerage services provision, review of existing environmental policy, public awareness drive and sustainable groundwater management. / D.Phil. (Environmental Science)