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Thema der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Politik, die in der Äußeren Mongolei n Hinblick auf die Lamas und Klöster verfolgt wurde (1920-1939). Das Thema wird auf allen Ebenen untersucht. Es wird untersucht, welchen Einfluss die Bolschewiki/die Sowjets auf die Religionspolitik nahmen, welche Programme und Strategien die mongolische Führung entwarf, welche Maßnahmen ergriffen wurden, wie diese Maßnahmen von Partei und Staat umgesetzt wurden, schließlich wird untersucht, wie die Lamas, die gläubige Bevölkerung auf diese Politik reagierte. Das Thema wird in all seinen verschiedenen Aspekten dargestellt: zu Religionspolitik gehören also die religionspolitischen Programme, die entsprechende Gesetzgebung, die in Hinblick auf die Lamas und Klöster verfolgte Steuerpolitik und Anderes. Der Faktor, der die Religionspolitik sicherlich wesentlich prägte, was der Einfluss der Bolschewiki. In der Arbeit wird dargestellt, dass die Religionspolitik aber keineswegs die bloße Umsetzung eines von Beginn an vorhandenen Programms war, das letztlich auf einer antireligiösen Ideologie basierte. Vielmehr zeigt sich, dass in Hinblick auf die Religionspolitik verschiedene Phasen zu unterscheiden sind, in denen jeweils eine recht unterschiedliche Politik verfolgt wurden. So waren die ersten Jahre von einer Politik der Kompromisse geprägt, die Lamas wurden als Teil einer „Einheitsfront“ angesprochen. In der Mitte der 1920er verfolgten mongolische Funktionäre dann ein Programm zur Reform des Buddhismus. Darauf folgte in den Jahren 1929 bis 1932 ein offen proklamierter Kampf gegen die „gelben Feudalen“, also gegen die (hochrangigen) Lamas. Was dann schließlich in den Jahren 1937 bis 1939 erfolgte war die sogenannte Lösung der Lama- und Klösterfrage: binnen anderthalb Jahren wurden mehr als 15 000 Lamas verhaftet und hingerichtet, alle Klöster wurden geschlossen. Die Folge dieser Religionspolitik war die Beseitigung des mongolischen Buddhismus in seiner tradierten Form. / Theme of this book is the policy in regard to the lamas and monasteries in Outer Mongolia (1920-1939), the so called lama question. The policy on religion will be analyzed on all level. This includes the following questions: What was the general attitude of the Bolsheviks/the soviet towards Outer Mongolia, what policy pursued the Bolsheviks/the Soviets in regard to Outer Mongolia and how did they influenced the policy on religion? What did the Mongolian leadership say and do in regard to the lamas? Which measure were taken? How did the local party cadres and the administration executed these measure? Finally, how did the common people, the lama react towards this policy? The policy on religion comprises different aspects which all will be analyzed, e.g. legislation, taxation of the lamas and monasteries, antireligious organizations. The main force in regard to this policy in Outer Mongolia were the Bolsheviks, the Soviet Union. The main argument developed in this thesis is that this was not a clear cut process determined by an all ready platform which in itself was determined by an underlying antireligious ideology. There were quite some changes in regard to the attitude towards Buddhism. In the first years after the so called People's Revolution the Bolsheviks and the governing Mongolian People's Party proposed the strategy of the united front. In the mid 1920s influential Mongolian leaders proposed a reform of Buddhism. This reform was followed by a fierce attack on the yellow feudal (a term applied to the lamas) in the years 1929 -1932. Finally, in the years 1937-1939 more than 15 000 lamas were arrested and executed, all monasteries were closed: this so called solution of the question of the lamas and monasteries destroyed the Buddhist institutions in Outer Mongolia.

Formal state-controlled education has been a central element for social development in South Africa since the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910. The establishment and promotion of a culture of learning and teaching is regarded as a pre-condition for high educational standards. This thesis is a study of the role of the state in the establishment of a culture of learning and teaching in South Africa from 1910 to 2004. To understand the role that the state played in promoting, or inhibiting, a culture of learning and teaching, a historical review was taken of the state's role in formal schooling in the period of the Union (1910-1947), the era of apartheid (1948-1989), the transitional period (1990-1994) and in the era of the democratic South Africa. As an ideal, the state has a responsibility to ensure the establishment of a culture of learning and teaching. The historical review revealed, however, that the state used its policies to promote political rather than educational ideologies - and in the process, there was a complete breakdown in a culture of learning and teaching. The establishment and promotion of a culture of learning and teaching towards the maintenance of high academic standards in South African state schools was the motivating force behind this study. Therefore, this study concludes with guidelines and recommendations grounded in the historical review that will hopefully promote a culture of learning and teaching in South African schools in future. / Educational Studies / D.Ed. (History of Education)

Formal state-controlled education has been a central element for social development in South Africa since the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910. The establishment and promotion of a culture of learning and teaching is regarded as a pre-condition for high educational standards. This thesis is a study of the role of the state in the establishment of a culture of learning and teaching in South Africa from 1910 to 2004. To understand the role that the state played in promoting, or inhibiting, a culture of learning and teaching, a historical review was taken of the state's role in formal schooling in the period of the Union (1910-1947), the era of apartheid (1948-1989), the transitional period (1990-1994) and in the era of the democratic South Africa. As an ideal, the state has a responsibility to ensure the establishment of a culture of learning and teaching. The historical review revealed, however, that the state used its policies to promote political rather than educational ideologies - and in the process, there was a complete breakdown in a culture of learning and teaching. The establishment and promotion of a culture of learning and teaching towards the maintenance of high academic standards in South African state schools was the motivating force behind this study. Therefore, this study concludes with guidelines and recommendations grounded in the historical review that will hopefully promote a culture of learning and teaching in South African schools in future. / Educational Studies / D.Ed. (History of Education)