Import sanctions were used to a very limited extent against South Africa in the early sixties and latter half of the seventies to clearly signal the international community's disapproval of the country's apartheid policy. In the middle eighties South Africa was further exposed to a two year wave of export and financial sanctions. This was after the government had already committed itself to move away from apartheid as a policy that was no longer deemed feasible. All these sanctions were lifted in the early nineties after the abolition of apartheid but before negotiations for a new constitutional dispensation had firmly got under way. Contrary to some popular impressions, the 1985-87 sanctions were also severe1y limited in scope and nature, with the result that their economic impact was only marginal at best. They were introduced at a time when the country unexpectedly had to face a foreign debt crisis and had to drastically adjust the economy downward, not unlike that experienced by many other developing countries. The severe recession and greater socio-political unrest that followed did not lead to an escalation of sanctions, but nevertheless threatened to make large parts of the country ungovernable. The evidence is that sanctions only played a minor role in bringing about this poor and deteriorating state of affairs. The political aims of abolishing apartheid and preparing the way for negotiations was achieved mainly as a result of certain internal political developments, together with the political implications of such major other outside developments as the economic collapse of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Soviet Union. South Africa's experience with sanctions confirms that as elsewhere their economic impact as an instrument of foreign policy was invariably exaggerated, whereas their contribution in explaining the subsequent course of political events was at best uncertain. / Department of Economics / Ph.D. (Economics)

Import sanctions were used to a very limited extent against South Africa in the early sixties and latter half of the seventies to clearly signal the international community's disapproval of the country's apartheid policy. In the middle eighties South Africa was further exposed to a two year wave of export and financial sanctions. This was after the government had already committed itself to move away from apartheid as a policy that was no longer deemed feasible. All these sanctions were lifted in the early nineties after the abolition of apartheid but before negotiations for a new constitutional dispensation had firmly got under way. Contrary to some popular impressions, the 1985-87 sanctions were also severe1y limited in scope and nature, with the result that their economic impact was only marginal at best. They were introduced at a time when the country unexpectedly had to face a foreign debt crisis and had to drastically adjust the economy downward, not unlike that experienced by many other developing countries. The severe recession and greater socio-political unrest that followed did not lead to an escalation of sanctions, but nevertheless threatened to make large parts of the country ungovernable. The evidence is that sanctions only played a minor role in bringing about this poor and deteriorating state of affairs. The political aims of abolishing apartheid and preparing the way for negotiations was achieved mainly as a result of certain internal political developments, together with the political implications of such major other outside developments as the economic collapse of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Soviet Union. South Africa's experience with sanctions confirms that as elsewhere their economic impact as an instrument of foreign policy was invariably exaggerated, whereas their contribution in explaining the subsequent course of political events was at best uncertain. / Department of Economics / Ph.D. (Economics)

This paper endeavors to establish some basic points of reference to better understand the early culture-historical dynamics of the Casma Valley. The revised chronology presented here follows the ceramic sequence developed by Peter Fuchs (1990) on the basis of his Cerro Sechín stratigraphy, confirmed and amplified in its early sections by his recent excavations at Sechín Bajo. A systematic review of the different categories of archaeological data reveals many lacunae that still persist in our record. Monumental architecture most clearly expresses the socio-cultural complexity of the ancient Casma Valley polities. It first appeared during the Sechín Period (3400-1650 cal BC) which is part of the Late Archaic (Preceramic), followed during the Early Formative by the Moxeke Period (1650-1400 cal BC) and the Haldas Period (1400-1000 cal BC) with their diagnostic ceramics. Within this timeframe, some hypotheses formulated by Shelia and Thomas Pozorski (2006) about the socio-political transactions between major Casma Valley sites are evaluated in the light of the archaeological evidence. The tradition of monumental adobe architecture that goes back to about 3400 cal BC in the Casma Valley, reminds us of analogous developments in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the ancient Near East. There still remains the challenge to adapt Archaic Period terminology in the Andes to those new discoveries (Kaulicke 1994, 2007: 17-18). / Las investigaciones recientes permiten esbozar un nuevo cuadro cronológico del valle de Casma gracias a la secuencia cerámica elaborada por Peter Fuchs (1990) sobre la base de la estratigrafía de Cerro Sechín, confirmada y ampliada en su parte temprana por los descubrimientos en Sechín Bajo. Al mismo tiempo, el recuento sistemático categorizado de los datos revelará muchas lagunas en el registro arqueológico actual. El avance sociocultural de los habitantes del valle de Casma se expresa, más claramente, en su arquitectura monumental. Se da a conocer, primero, en el Periodo Sechín (3400-1650 a.C.), que forma parte del Arcaico Tardío y Final, seguido durante el Formativo Temprano —según los contextos cerámicos diagnósticos—, por los periodos Moxeke (1650-1400 a.C.) y Haldas (1400-1000 a.C. [calib.]). Dentro de este marco se tratará de evaluar, a la luz de las evidencias arqueológicas, algunos desarrollos sociopolíticos bosquejados por Shelia y Thomas Pozorski (2006) como si fuesen reales. La presencia de una arquitectura monumental de adobe que se remonta hacia 3400 a.C. (calib.) en el valle de  Casma, hace recordar los desarrollos análogos del Neolítico Precerámico (Pre-Pottery Neolithic) del Cercano Oriente. Permanece pendiente el reto de estructurar una terminología conveniente para el Periodo Arcaico andino, de acuerdo con los nuevos descubrimientos (Kaulicke 1994; 2009: 17-18).

The goal of this Thesis is to introduce the circumstances of creation the political party TOP09, its development, results in elections in years 2010 - 2018 and its position in current political scene. In the introduction I will define the theoretical background and context. I will interduce the political party, its place in the system and I mention the typology of political parties. Then I will describe the party system with an emphasis on party system in Czech Republic. In the main part of the Thesis I will describe circumstances of creation the political party TOP09 and define programmatic of the party. I'm going to analyze a reason of successes and failures of the party in elections, which took place on Czech Republic, since its creation in 2008 till present year 2018. In this thesis is based on analytical, descriptive and comparative methods.