Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Apples are an important export commodity for the South African market, and postharvest losses that occur as a result of decay due to infection with pathogenic fungi such as Botrytis cinerea Pers., Penicillium expansum (Link) Thom. and Neofabraea alba (E.J. Guthrie) are of major concern for all parties concerned with fruit production and distribution. Decay control of these fungi is primarily managed through the use of synthetic fungicides; however, pathogen development of resistance to these fungicides and recent worldwide concern over healthier living and a greener environment has called for the discriminate use of synthetic chemicals. This has opened up an avenue for the development of safer and more environmentally friendly alternatives to control postharvest decays. The use of plant extracts and essential oils are favoured as natural sources of antimicrobials whilst still being safe for human consumption and having no negative impact on the environment. Allium sativum (garlic) is one such plant species that is well documented for its value in improving human health and is readily available for consumption not just as a flavour component of food but also to be taken as a daily herbal diet supplement. Given the antimicrobial effectiveness of garlic against human pathogens and ailments, its value as an antifungal agent against postharvest pathogens causing grey mould, blue mould and bull’s eye rot of apples was investigated in vitro and in vivo within this study. Furthermore, an attempt was made to elucidate the chemical components of garlic extracts by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All experiments in this study were carried out with garlic extracts prepared from fresh garlic bulbs. For the in vitro experiments, two extract preparations of garlic, one containing ethanol (Extract 1) and one where ethanol had been removed by evaporation (Extract 2), was tested for antifungal action within an amended media experimental design. Both extract preparations were each subjected to two dilution series (0-80% garlic extract) with water and ethanol as diluents. Both extract preparations were successful at retarding pathogen mycelial growth and spore germination; however, concentrations of Extract 2 (ethanol evaporated) and diluted with distilled water provided markedly better inhibition of B. cinerea and P. expansum than the ethanolic dilutions of extract 2. Both extract preparations yielded similar inhibitory results when tested against N. alba. Due to the results achieved in the amended media experiments, the use of a crude garlic extract without ethanol and diluted in water was considered to be the best option for further tests throughout the remainder of the study. In vitro volatile effects of crude garlic extracts at concentrations between 0 and 40% garlic extract were subsequently tested. Garlic volatiles were effective in inhibiting pathogen mycelial growth and spore germination of all three pathogens, at lower concentrations compared to the amended media experiments. In vitro volatile exposure with garlic extracts was more effective at inhibiting N. alba than direct application of the extracts. Curative and protective application of garlic extracts and clove oil for increased fungal inhibition through synergism was tested by direct and volatile exposure to the pathogens in vivo on three economically important apple cultivars; ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Golden Delicious’, and ‘Pink Lady’. Direct exposure of artificially wounded and inoculated fruit to the garlic extract and clove oil revealed that garlic extracts applied curatively but not protectively effectively controlled decay caused by B. cinerea and P. expansum on all apple cultivars. Both curative and protective applications were ineffective in controlling N. alba. In vivo volatile exposure to the garlic extracts and clove oil did not inhibit decay on any of the cultivars and was not effective against any of the three pathogens investigated. A full chemical profile analysis was done by GC-MS analysis of garlic extract samples. The compounds diallyl disulphide, allyl methyl trisulphide, allyl methyl disulphide and dimethyl trisulphide were detected in relatively high amounts. This result suggests that the abundance of sulphur and sulphur related compounds detected may be responsible for the antifungal action noted in the experimental studies. In conclusion, garlic was shown to have antifungal activity against B. cinerea, P. expansum and N. alba. The pathogens used in this study were not compared with each other, but undoubtedly each pathogens reacts differently to exposure to the garlic extracts. It would therefore be advisable to investigate the effects of the extracts on each of the pathogens in a more in-depth study. More investigations into the application of the garlic extracts is required before it may be recommended for use; however, results for the use of garlic extracts against these postharvest pathogens and the postharvest decay they cause are promising. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Appels is ‘n belangrike uitvoerproduk vir die Suid-Afrikaanse vrugtebedryf, maar noemenswaardige na-oes verliese word weens bederf deur patogeniese swamme soos Botrytis cinerea Pers., Penicillium expansum (Link) Thom. en Neofabraea alba (E.J. Guthrie) ervaar. Dit raak alle partye betrokke met die produksie en verspreiding van hierdie vrugsoort. Hierdie swamme word hoofsaaklik met behulp van kunsmatige swamdoders beheer, alhoewel weerstand-ontwikkeling en wêreldwye bewusmaking van ‘n gesonder leefstyl en omgewing die gebruik van kunsmatige middels streng aanspreek en die ontwikkeling van veiliger en meer omgewingsvriendelike alternatiewe middels verlang. Plant-ekstrakte en essensiële olies kan dien as sulke middels en is natuurlike bronne van anti-mikrobiese aktiwiteit, is veilig vir menslike verbruik en het ook geen negatiewe invloed op die omgewing nie. Allium sativum (knoffel) is so ‘n plantspesie wat as alternatiewe middel gebruik kan word. Dit is bekend vir sy waarde in die verbetering van menslike gesondheid, is maklik bekombaar en word nie net as ‘n geurmiddel vir voedsel gebruik nie, maar ook as ‘n daaglikse krui-aanvulling. Gegewe die anti-mikrobiese doeltreffendheid van knoffel teenoor menslike patogene en kwale, is die werking (in vitro en in vivo) teen na-oes patogene wat grys skimmel, blou skimmel en teikenvrot in appels veroorsaak, in hierdie studie ondersoek. Bepaling van die chemiese samestelling van die knoffel-ekstrak is ook met behulp van gaschromatografie massa spektrometrie (GK-MS) onderneem.Vars knoffelbolle is vir elke eksperiment in hierdie studie gebruik met die voorbereiding van die knoffel-ekstrak. Vir die in vitro eksperiment is twee knoffel-ekstrakte voorberei, naamlik: ‘n ekstrak wat etanol bevat (Ekstrak 1) en een waarvan die etanol verwyder is met verdamping (Ekstrak 2). Die ekstrakte is getoets vir werking teen fungi in kultuur-medium.. Albei ekstrakte is verdun tot twee konsentrasie reekse (0-80%) met water en etanol as verdunningsmiddels. Albei ekstrakte het suksesvolle werking getoon teenoor die patogene ten opsigte van vertraging van miseliumgroei en spoor-ontkieming, alhoewel konsentrasies van Ekstrak 2, verdun met gesuiwerede water, patogene B. cinerea en P. expansum beter onderdruk het as Ekstrak 2 verdunnings met etanol.. Beide ekstrakte en hul afsonderlike verdunnings met etanol en water het soortgelyke resultate gelewer met onderdrukking van N. alba. Volgens resultate wat verkry is van die kultuur-medium eksperimente, is Ekstrak 2 verdun met gesuiwerde water beskou as die geskikste vir verdere toetse in hierdie studie. Die vlugtige effek van Ekstrak 2 is in vitro getoets by konsentrasies tussen 0 tot 40%. Die vlugtige stowwe van knoffel het al drie patogene se groei en spoor-ontkieming effektief onderdrukby laer konsentrasies as wat gebruik is in die kultuur-medium eksperiment. Dus is in vitro blootstelling van N. alba aan die vlugtige stowwe meer effektief as direkte toediening van die ekstrakte. Die voorkomende en beskermende effek van die knoffel-ekstrak, asook naeltjie-olie, is in vivo ondersoek om te bepaal of die stowwe saam sterker onderdrukking van die patogene kon bewerkstellig. Direkte en vlugtige blootstelling is op drie ekonomies-belangrike appel-kultivars getoets, naamlik: ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Golden Delicious’ en ‘Pink Lady’. Direkte blootstelling met die knoffel-ekstrak en naeltjie-olie aan gewonde en ge-inokuleerde vrugte het aangedui dat B. cinerea- en P. Expansum-bederf net beheer kon word indien knoffel voorkomend toegedien is vir al die ondersoekte appel-variëteite. Voorkomende en beskermende toediening was onsuksesvolle om N. alba te beheer. In vivo blootstelling van die drie patogene aan die knoffel-ekstrak en naeltjie-olie se vlugtige stowwe kon nie enige van die patogene effektief onderdruk nie en was onsuksesvol in bederf-beheer. ‘n Volledige chemiese profiel is saamgestel deur GK-MS ontleding van die knoffelekstrakte. Hoë vlakke van verbindings dialliel disulfied, alliel-metiel-tri-sulfied, alliel-metieldisulfied en dimetiel-trisulfied is bespeur. Die aantal vrye sulfied en sulfied-verwante verbindings in die ekstrak kan moontlik ‘n verduideliking bied vir die anti-swam werking waargeneem gedurende hierdie studie. Ten slotte: knoffel toon ‘n anti-swam werking teenoor B. cinerea, P. expansum en N. alba. Die patogene in hierdie studie is nie met mekaar vergelyk nie, omdat elkeen uniek en uiteenlopend op knoffel reageer het. Alhoewel die huidige studie alreeds belowende resultate gelewer het, moet die ekstrak se effek op elke patogeen onderskeidelik nog in diepte ondersoek word, asook die wyse van die toediening in die na-oes praktyk voordat hierdie middel aanbeveel kan word vir gebruik.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is a commercially valued fruit mainly for its attractively red pericarp and exotic taste. However, the market value of the fruit is affected by pericarp browning, desiccation and postharvest decay. Current control measures include sulphur dioxide (SO2) fumigation, low temperature storage and high relative humidity (RH). Sulphur residues on fruit, moisture loss, altered taste and decay caused by Penicillium spp., limit the use of SO2 fumigation. Technology that can provide a potential alternative method to retain the quality of fruit is modified atmosphere packaging (MAP). In this study (Chapter 3), the effect of active and passive modified atmospheres on quality retention of litchi cultivars ‘Mauritius’ and ‘McLean’s Red’ was investigated. Results indicated that ‘McLean’s Red’ is more suitable for MAP technology than ‘Mauritius’. Lidding film–4 holes significantly reduced activity of oxidation enzymes, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD), and retained higher pericarp colour. Lidding film–10 holes retained soluble solids concentration to titratable acidity ratio (SSC/TA) (~65), thereby preventing the loss of taste and litchi fruit flavour. In order to enhance the MAP technology further (Chapter 4), chitosan coating of fruit was also assessed. Chitosan (1.0 g L-1) combined with MAP effectively prevented decay, browning and pericarp colour loss in ‘McLean’s Red’. Chitosan (1.0 g L-1) integrated with MAP reduced PPO and POD activity, retained membrane integrity, anthocyanin content and pericarp colour. ‘McLean’s Red’ was found to be more suitable for the chitosan (1.0 g L-1) and MAP integrated treatment than ‘Mauritius’ in retaining overall quality. In addition, the effect of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) in combination with MAP was determined for both cultivars (Chapter 5). In this case 1-MCP (300 nL L-1) was most effective in preventing browning and retaining colour in both cultivars after 14 and 21 days of cold storage. The effect of 1-MCP (300 nL L-1) showed more potential on ‘McLean’s Red’ than ‘Mauritius’. At higher concentrations (500 and 1000 nL L-1), 1-MCP showed negative effects on membrane integrity, pericarp browning, PPO and POD activity in both cultivars. The effect of integrated postharvest treatments i.e. modified atmosphere packaging combined with chitosan and integrated MAP and 1-MCP as well as MAP and chitosan coating on foodborne bacterial pathogens (Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Staphylococcus aureus) spike-inoculated on litchi fruit surfaces, and Penicillium spp. decay were also investigated (Chapter 6). Results showed integrated MAP and chitosan (0.1 g L-1 and 1.0 g L-1) treatments significantly reduced high and low inoculums load of E. coli O157:H7 and S. aureus on litchi fruit after 21 days of cold storage. Integrated MAP and 1000 nL L-1 1-MCP resulted in higher disease severity. Integrated MAP and chitosan (0.1 g L-1 and 1.0 g L-1) treatments showed very good decay control. The total microbial population of the litchi fruit surface was also determined. Integrated MAP and 1.0 g L-1 significantly reduced the total microbial flora after 21 days of cold storage. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Thesis (PhD(Agric))--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is the largest exporter of shipped fresh citrus fruit worldwide. One of the major factors that can lead to substantial losses is postharvest decay. Penicillium digitatum (PD) and P. italicum (PI) are the main wound pathogens, respectively causing green and blue mould decay. PD is more prevalent than PI and therefore also the focus in the majority of research in this field. Imazalil (IMZ) is applied by the majority of citrus packhouses through an aqueous dip treatment, and provides good curative and protective control, as well as sporulation inhibition activity. Two IMZ formulations are in use: the sulphate salt applied in aqueous treatments and the emulsifiable concentrate (EC) applied with wax coatings. The majority of research on IMZ has been done using the EC formulation. The maximum residue limit (MRL) for IMZ on citrus fruit is 5 μg.g-1, whereas 2-3 μg.g-1 is regarded as a biologically effective residue level that should at least inhibit green mould sporulation. A study was conducted to assess the current status of IMZ application in South African packhouses, to determine the adequate residue levels needed to control green mould and inhibit sporulation using IMZ sensitive and resistant isolates, and to study optimisation of modes of IMZ application in citrus packhouses. Factors studied were IMZ concentration, application type (spray vs. dip and drench), exposure time, solution temperature and pH, as well as curative and protective control of PD. The packhouse survey showed that the majority of packhouses applied IMZ in a sulphate salt formulation through a fungicide dip tank, and loaded an IMZ residue of ≈1 μg.g-1. In dip applications, IMZ had excellent curative and protective activity against Penicillium isolates sensitive to IMZ. However, curative control of IMZ resistant isolates was substantially reduced and protective control was lost, even at twice the recommended concentration, nor was sporulation inhibited. The use of sodium bicarbonate (2%) buffered imazalil sulphate solutions at pH ±8, compared with pH ±3 of the unbuffered solutions, markedly increased IMZ residue loading on navel and Valencia oranges and improved curative and protective control of IMZ resistant isolates. Exposure time did not affect IMZ residue loading in IMZ sulphate solutions at pH 3, although the MRL was exceeded after 45 s exposure in pH 8 solutions. Imazalil applied through spray or drench application improved residue loading, but green mould control was less effective than after dip application. IMZ formulation (IMZ sulphate and EC), solution pH (IMZ sulphate at 500 μg.mL-1 buffered with NaHCO3 or NaOH to pH 6 and 8) and exposure time (15 to 540 s) were subsequently investigated in order to improve IMZ residue loading and green mould control on Clementine mandarin, lemon, and navel and Valencia orange fruit. As seen previously, exposure time had no significant effect on residue loading in the unbuffered IMZ sulphate solution (pH 3). No differences were observed between the pH buffers used, but residue loading improved with increase in pH. The MRL was exceeded following dip treatment in IMZ EC (after 75 s exposure time), and IMZ sulphate at pH 8 using NaHCO3 (77 s) or NaOH (89 s) as buffer. The MRL was exceeded after 161 s in IMZ sulphate solutions buffered at pH 6 with either NaHCO3 or NaOH. Green mould control as influenced by residue data was modelled to predict control of IMZ-sensitive and IMZ-resistant PD isolates. From this model the effective residue levels for 95% control of an IMZ-sensitive isolate and of an IMZ-resistant isolate were predicted to be 0.81 and 2.64 ug g-1, respectively. The effects of incubation time (infection age), exposure time, solution pH, wounds size and fruit brushing after dip treatments on residue loading and curative green mould control were also investigated. Exposure time did not have a significant effect on residue loading on fruit dipped in pH 3 solutions of IMZ (< 2.00 μg.g-1). Increasing the pH to 6 resulted in significantly increased residue loading, which increased with longer exposure time, but mostly to levels below the MRL after 180 s. Post-dip treatment brushing reduced residue levels obtained in IMZ pH 3 solutions by up to 90% to levels < 0.5 μg.g-1; however, curative control of the IMZ sensitive isolate was mostly unaffected, but with poor sporulation inhibition. At pH 6, post-dip brushing reduced residues to ≈ 60%; again curative control of the sensitive isolate was unaffected, but with improved sporulation inhibition. Wounded rind sections loaded higher residue levels compared to intact rind sections and large wounds loaded higher levels than small wounds (≈ 10.19, ≈ 9.06 and ≈ 7.91 μg.g-1 for large, small and no wound, respectively). Curative control of infections originating from large wounds was significantly better than those from small wounds. The ability of IMZ to control sensitive green mould infections declined from 6 and 12 h after inoculation on Clementine mandarin fruit of infections induced by small and large wounds, respectively; on navel orange fruit, curative control declined 18 and 36 h after inoculation for the respective wound size treatments. Effective IMZ concentrations that inhibit 50% (EC50) growth of nine PD and five PI isolates were determined in vitro and the IMZ sensitivity of the various isolates categorized according to their EC50 values and resistance (R) factors. Effective residue levels that predicted 50% curative (ER50C) and protective (ER50P) control of these isolates were determined in vivo. All the PI isolates had sensitive EC50 values of 0.005 - 0.050 μg.mL-1. Three PD isolates were sensitive (0.027 – 0.038 μg.mL-1), while one resistant isolate was categorized as low resistant (R-factor of 19), one as moderately resistant (R-factor of 33.2), three as resistant (R-factor of 50 - 57.6) and one as highly resistant (R-factor of 70.7). Sensitive PD isolates had mean ER50C and ER50P values on Valencia orange fruit of 0.29 and 0.20 μg.g-1, and 0.33 and 0.32 μg.g-1 on navel fruit, respectively. ER50 values for resistant isolates did not always correlate with EC50 values and ranged from 1.22 – 4.56 μg.g-1 for ER50C and 1.00 – 6.62 μg.g-1 for ER50P values. ER50P values for resistant isolates could not be obtained on navel orange fruit, but ER50C values (1.42 – 1.65 μg.g-1) were similar to those obtained on Valencia fruit. The PI isolates all behaved similar to the sensitive PD isolates with ER50C and ER50P values on navel and Valencia fruit < 0.38 μg.g-1. Alternative fungicides were assessed for the control of an IMZ sensitive, resistant and highly resistant PD isolates; these included sodium ortho-phenylpenate (SOPP), thiabendazole (TBZ), guazatine (GZT), imazalil (IMZ), pyrimethanil (PYR) and Philabuster® (PLB; a combination of IMZ and PYR), fludioxonil (FLU), azoxystrobin (AZO), Graduate®A+ (a combination of FLU and AZO) and propiconazole (PPZ). Multiple resistance was shown against IMZ, GZT, TBZ and PPZ in both resistant PD isolates. For the sensitive isolates, IMZ, SOPP, TBZ, GZT and PLB provided best curative control, while IMZ, GZT and PLB provided best protective control. For the IMZ-resistant isolates, SOPP, PYR and PLB gave the best curative control, while none of the fungicides provided adequate protective control. Globally, this is the first in-depth study of green and blue mould control with the sulphate formulation of IMZ. Findings from this study are already being implemented by industry. Solution pH is monitored, exposure time is measured and residue loading specific to application method is assessed and interpreted by means of the ER50 values. Aqueous dip applications performed best in terms of curative control, and IMZ residue loading in wound sites was most important for curative control. Other studies confirmed this and showed that IMZ is better protectively applied with wax coatings. The practical impact of IMZ resistance has been highlighted as resistant isolates infections could never be adequately controlled. IMZ alternative fungicides were assessed and SOPP, TBZ, GZT, PYR and/or PLB could be used to reduce the development and impact of IMZ resistance. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika is die grootste uitvoerder van verskeepde vars sitrusvrugte wêreldwyd. Een van die vernaamste faktore wat tot substansiële verliese kan lei, is na-oesverrotting. Penicillium digitatum (PD) en P. italicum (PI) is die hoof wondpatogene, en veroorsaak onderskeidelik groenskimmel- en blouskimmelverval. PD is meer algemeen as PI en daarom ook die fokus in die meerderheid van navorsing in hierdie veld. Imazalil (IMZ) word deur die meerderheid van sitruspakhuise in ‘n waterige doopbehandeling toegedien, en verskaf goeie genesende en beskermende beheer, sowel as sporulasie-inhibisie aktiwiteit. Twee IMZ-formulasies word gebruik: die sulfaatsout wat in waterige behandelings toegedien word, en die emulsifiseerbare konsentraat (EK) wat in wakslaagbehandelings toegedien word. Die meerderheid van navorsing op IMZ is gedoen deur die gebruik van die EK-formulasie. Die maksimum residu limiet (MRL) vir IMZ op sitrusvrugte is 5 μg.g-1, terwyl 2-3 μg.g-1 as ‘n biologies effektiewe residuvlak beskou word wat ten minste groenskimmelsporulasie moet inhibeer. ‘n Studie is uitgevoer ten einde die huidige status van IMZ-toediening in Suid-Afrikaanse pakhuise vas te stel, om die voldoende residuvlakke vas te stel wat nodig is om groenskimmel te beheer en sporulasie te inhibeer deur die gebruik van IMZ-sensitiewe en -weerstandbiedende isolate, en om optimisering van metodes van IMZ-toediening in sitruspakhuise te bestudeer. Faktore wat bestudeer is, was IMZ-konsentrasie, toedieningstipe (spuit vs. doop en stort), blootstellingsperiode, oplossingstemperatuur en pH, asook genesende en beskermende beheer van PD. Die pakhuis-opname het aangedui dat die meerderheid van pakhuise IMZ in ‘n sulfaatsoutformulasie deur ‘n fungisieddooptenk toegedien het, en ‘n IMZ-residu van ≈1 μg.g-1 gelaai het. In dooptoedienings het IMZ uitstekende genesende en beskermende aktiwiteit teen ‘n Penicillium IMZ-sensitiewe isolaat gehad. Genesende beheer van ‘n IMZ-weerstandbiedende isolaat was egter substansiëel minder, en beskermende beheer was verlore, selfs teen twee keer die aanbevole konsentrasie. Sporulasie is ook nie geïnhibeer nie. Die gebruik van natriumbikarbonaat (2%) gebufferde imazalil sulfaat-oplossings by pH ±8, in vergelyking met pH ±3 van die ongebufferde oplossings, het IMZ-residulading op nawel en Valencia lemoene merkbaar verhoog, en genesende en beskermende beheer van IMZ-weerstandbiedende isolaat verbeter. Blootstellingsperiode het nie IMZ-residulading in IMZ-sulfaat-oplossings by pH 3 geaffekteer nie, hoewel die MRL ná 45 s blootstelling in pH 8 oplossings oorskry is. Imazalil wat deur spuit- of drenkhandeling toegedien is, het residulading verbeter, maar groenskimmelbeheer was minder effektief as ná dooptoediening. IMZ-formulasie (IMZ-sulfaat en EK), oplossing pH (IMZ-sulfaat teen 500 μg.mL-1 gebuffer met NaHCO3 of NaOH na pH 6 en 8) en blootstellingsperiode (15 tot 540 s) is daaropvolgend ondersoek ten einde IMZ-residulading en groenskimmelbeheer op Clementine mandaryn, suurlemoen, en nawel en Valencia lemoen vrugte te verbeter. Soos voorheen opgelet, het blootstellingsperiode geen betekenisvolle effek op residulading in die ongebufferde IMZ-sulfaat-oplossing (pH 3) gehad nie. Geen verskille is tussen die pH buffers wat gebruik is, waargeneem nie, maar residulading het met verhoogde pH verbeter. Die MRL is ná die doopbehandeling in IMZ EK (ná 75 s blootstellingsperiode), en IMZ-sulfaat by pH 8 en gebruik van NaHCO3 (77 s) of NaOH (89 s) as buffer, oorskry. Die MRL is ná 161 s in IMZ-sulfaat-oplossings gebuffer by pH 6 met óf NaHCO3 óf NaOH oorskry. Groenskimmelbeheer, soos beïnvloed deur residulading, is gemodelleer ten einde beheer van IMZ-sensitiewe en IMZ-weerstandbiedende PD isolate te voorspel. Vanaf hierdie model is die effektiewe residuvlakke vir 95% beheer van ‘n IMZ-sensitiewe isolaat en van ‘n IMZ-weerstandbiedende isolaat as onderskeidelik 0.81 en 2.64 ug.g-1 voorspel. Die effekte van inkubasieperiode (infeksie-ouderdom), blootstellingsperiode, oplossing pH, wondgrootte en borsel van vrugte ná doopbehandelings, op residulading en genesende groenskimmelbeheer, is ook ondersoek. Blootstellingsperiode het geen betekenisvolle effek op residulading op vrugte wat in pH 3 oplossings van IMZ (< 2.00 μg.g-1) gedoop is, gehad nie. Verhoging van pH tot 6 het tot betekenisvolle verhoogde residulading gelei, wat met verlengde blootstellingsperiode toegeneem het, maar meestal tot vlakke onder die MRL ná 180 s. Ná-doop borsel van vrugte het residuvlakke wat in IMZ pH 3 oplossings verkry is, met tot 90% verminder na vlakke < 0.5 μg.g-1; genesende beheer van die IMZ-sensitiewe isolaat was egter meestal ongeaffekteer, maar met swak sporulasie-inhibisie. By pH 6, het ná-doop borsel van vrugte residue tot ≈ 60% verminder; genesende beheer van die sensitiewe isolaat is weer nie geaffekteer nie, maar met verbeterde sporulasie-inhibisie. Gewonde skilsegmente het hoër residuvlakke gelaai in vergelyking met heel skilsegmente, en groot wonde het hoër vlakke gelaai in vergelyking met klein wonde (≈ 10.19, ≈ 9.06 en ≈ 7.91 μg.g-1 vir groot, klein en geen wond, onderskeidelik). Genesende beheer van infeksies wat vanaf groot wonde ontstaan het, was betekenisvol beter as dié vanaf klein wonde. Die vermoë van IMZ om sensitiewe groenskimmel-infeksies te beheer, het vanaf 6 en 12 h ná inokulasie op Clementine mandaryn vrugte van infeksies wat deur klein en groot wonde onderskeidelik geïnduseer is, afgeneem; op nawel lemoen vrugte, het genesende beheer 18 en 36 h ná inokulasie vir die onderskeie wondgrootte behandelings, afgeneem. Effektiewe IMZ-konsentrasies wat 50% (EK50) groei van nege PD en vyf PI isolate inhibeer, is in vitro vasgestel en die IMZ-sensitiwiteit van die verskillende isolate is volgens hul EK50 waardes en weerstandsfaktore (R) gekatogeriseer. Effektiewe residuvlakke wat 50% genesende (ER50C) en beskermende (ER50P) beheer van hierdie isolate voorspel, is in vivo vasgestel. Al die PI isolate het sensitiewe EK50 waardes van 0.005 - 0.050 μg.mL-1 gehad. Drie PD isolate was sensitief (0.027 – 0.038 μg.mL-1), terwyl een weerstandbiedende isolaat as laag weerstandbiedend (R-faktor van 19) gekatogeriseer is, een as matig weerstandbiedend (R-faktor van 33.2), drie as weerstandbiedend (R-faktor van 50 - 57.6) en een as hoogs weerstandbiedend (R-faktor van 70.7). Sensitiewe PD isolate het gemiddelde ER50C en ER50P waardes op Valencia lemoen vrugte van 0.29 en 0.20 μg.g-1 gehad, en 0.33 en 0.32 μg.g-1 op nawel vrugte, onderskeidelik. ER50 waardes vir weerstandbiedende isolate het nie altyd met EK50 waardes gekorreleer nie en het van 1.22 – 4.56 μg.g-1 vir ER50C en 1.00 – 6.62 μg.g-1 vir ER50P waardes gevariëer. ER50P waardes vir weerstandbiedende isolate kon nie op nawel lemoen vrugte verkry word nie, maar ER50C waardes (1.42 – 1.65 μg.g-1) was soortgelyk aan dié verkry op Valencia vrugte. Die PI isolate het almal soortgelyk aan die sensitiewe PD isolate opgetree, met ER50C en ER50P waardes op nawel en Valencia vrugte < 0.38 μg.g-1. Alternatiewe swamdoders is vir die beheer van ‘n IMZ-sensitiewe, -weerstandbiedende en -hoogs weerstandbiedende PD isolate getoets; hierdie het ingesluit: “sodium ortho-phenylpenate” (SOPP), thiabendazole (TBZ), guazatine (GZT), imazalil (IMZ), pyrimethanil (PYR) en Philabuster® (PLB; ‘n kombinasie van IMZ en PYR), fludioxonil (FLU), azoxystrobin (AZO), Graduate®A+ (‘n kombinasie van FLU en AZO) en propiconazole (PPZ). Veelvoudige weerstand is teen IMZ, GZT, TBZ en PPZ in beide weerstandbiedende PD isolate aangetoon. Vir die sensitiewe isolate, het IMZ, SOPP, TBZ, GZT en PLB die beste genesende beheer verskaf, terwyl IMZ, GZT en PLB die beste beskermende beheer verskaf het. Vir die IMZ-weerstandbiedende isolate, het SOPP, PYR en PLB die beste genesende beheer verskaf, terwyl geen van die swamdoders voldoende beskermende beheer verskaf het nie. Hierdie studie is wêreldwyd die eerste in-diepte studie van groenskimmel- en blouskimmelbeheer met die sulfaatformulasie van IMZ. Bevindinge vanuit hierdie studie word alreeds in die industrie geïmplementeer. Oplossing pH word gemonitor, blootstellingsperiode word gemeet en residulading spesifiek tot toedieningsmetode word bepaal en volgens die ER50 waardes geïnterpreteer. Waterige dooptoedienings het die beste ten opsigte van genesende beheer gevaar, en IMZ-residulading in wond-areas was die belangrikste vir genesende beheer. Ander studies het dit bevestig en getoon dat IMZ beter beskermend is wanneer in ‘n wakslaag toegedien word. Die praktiese impak van IMZ-weerstand is uitgelig aangesien weerstandbiedende isolaat-infeksies nooit voldoende beheer kon word nie. IMZ alternatiewe swamdoders is getoets en SOPP, TBZ, GZT, PYR en/of PLB kon gebruik word om die ontwikkeling en impak van IMZ-weerstand te verminder.