The Occoquan Reservoir is a public water supply in northern Virginia. The Occoquan Watershed has developed over the years from rural land uses to metropolitan suburbs within easy commuting distance from Washington, DC. Due to this urbanization, the Occoquan Reservoir is especially vulnerable to hypereutrophication, which results in problems such as algal blooms (including cyanobacteria), periodic fish kills, and taste and odor problems. In the 1970's, a new management plan for the Occoquan Reservoir called for the construction of the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority (UOSA), an advanced wastewater treatment plant that would take extraordinary measures for highly reliable and highly efficient removal of particulates, organics, nutrients, and pathogens. Eliminating most of the water quality problems associated with point source discharges in the watershed, this state-of-the-art treatment is the foundation for the successful indirect surface water reuse system in the Occoquan Reservoir today. A limnological analysis of thirty years of water quality monitoring data from the reservoir and its two primary tributaries shows that the majority of the nutrient and sediment load to the reservoir comes from nonpoint sources, which are closely tied to hydrometeorologic conditions. Reservoir water quality trends are very similar to trends in stream water quality, and the tributary in the most urbanized part of the watershed, Bull Run, has been identified as the main contributor of sediment and nutrients to the reservoir. Despite significant achievements in maintaining the reservoir as a source of high quality drinking water, the reservoir remains a phosphorus-limited eutrophic waterbody. / Master of Science

Reverse osmosis (RO) is widely used for water reclamation and is one of the most feasible technologies for addressing water scarcity around the world. RO membrane fabrication procedures are continually being optimized and modified to enhance the treatment performance and efficacy of the RO process. A review of the existing literature published on membrane fabrication revealed that a detailed and reproducible methodology consistent among prior studies was not available. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to utilize techniques from prior research to develop a reliable lab-scale membrane fabrication process for studying the potable reuse applications of TFC RO membranes. Phase inversion was used to create a polysulfone (PSF) support layer on a non-woven fabric sheet. Then, the process of interfacial polymerization (IP) between amine and acyl chloride monomers was utilized to form a highly selective and ultrathin polyamide (PA) layer on the PSF support surface. The resulting membrane composition and performance was dependent on a wide range of parameters during the fabrication process. The optimal support materials, reactant types and concentration, and reaction conditions were determined through trial and error. The best performing membranes utilized N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) as the solvent, Novatexx-2471 non-woven fabric for mechanical support, and 15 wt% PSF concentration for phase inversion. The optimal immersion duration was five minutes for the aqueous amine monomer solution during the IP process. The flux for membrane triplicates was 20.2  3.6 liters per square meter per hour (LMH) while the salt rejection was 96.8  2.0%. The relatively low standard deviation for flux and salt rejection indicates that the fabrication method developed herein is consistent. A commercial Dow Filmtec BW30 flat sheet PA-TFC RO membrane was tested for comparison and exhibited a flux of 44.9 LMH and a salt rejection of 98.5%. Thus, the membranes developed in this study achieved salt rejection on par with commercial membranes but exhibited a flux that was significantly lower. Furthermore, this study investigated modifications to the traditional TFC membrane using engineered silica nanomaterials with the goal of enhancing the membrane flux while maintaining high salt rejection. Two types of nonporous silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SDNPs), non-functionalized and amine functionalized, were dispersed in the aqueous and organic IP solutions. Ultrasonication of the non-functionalized SDNPs in the aqueous solution was observed to produce the most stable dispersion. Compared to the unmodified TFC membranes, the average flux of the SDNP-modified (TFC-NP) RO membrane triplicates was higher at 25.4  2.0 LMH with 0.1% (w/v) SDNPs incorporated in the PA layer. The salt rejection was lowered to 92.3  0.1% for the TFC-NP membranes. In addition, the membranes fabricated in this study were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transport Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and goniometry measurements. SEM images showed that the TFC-NP membranes contained larger spaces between ridges and valleys of the PA pore structure. FTIR confirmed the PA layer formation on the membranes fabricated herein but a spectral peak from the SDNPs was not observed for the TFC-NP membranes. AFM measurements indicated an increase in surface roughness of the modified membranes, likely because of the incorporation of SDNPs. The surface of TFC-NP membranes was found to be more hydrophilic than the unmodified TFC membranes based on contact angle measurements. Further optimization of the fabrication method developed herein is warranted before pursuing additional RO research topics, such as the disinfection byproduct precursor removal of TFC membranes.