Potato peel, a waste generated from potato processing is a disposal problem. But, it is a good source of phenolic compounds, sugars, and glycoalkaloids. This study examines the subcritical water extraction of phenolics, glycoalkaloids and sugars from potato peel and compares it to conventional solvent extraction. Experiments were conducted in a batch stainless steel reactor at 6 MPa, 2 mL/min and 100 to 240C for 30-120 min. The results revealed that highest recoveries of phenolic compounds (81.23 mg/100 g; fw) and sugars (75 mg/g; fw) were obtained using subcritical water at 180C and 30 min and at 160C and 120 min, respectively. Low content of glycoalkaloids (1.19 mg/100 g, fw) was obtained using subcritical water. The yields of phenolics and sugars using subcritical water were 40 and 45% higher than using a conventional solvent extraction method. Therefore, subcritical water might be a good substitute to organic solvents such as methanol and ethanol to obtain functional ingredients from potato peel. / Food Science and Technology

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The occurrence of lipid oxidation is considerade as one of the main factors that affect the quality of meat and chicken products. This process leads to sensorial changes, to lost of nutritional value, appearance of toxic compounds and the development of free radicaIs that are associated with a variety of human disordens. As an attempt of management this process, various research were developed as a purpose to isolate bioactive compounds, obtained from plant source, that had effective antioxidant activity. This approach has consumers' preference, and also could help in the prevention of diseases. This research evaluated the effect of extracts obtained from potato peel as antioxidants in chicken meat. It was developed two raw extracts (aqueous and purificated) were prepared and injected in the chicken meat, at 0,5% concentration. The samples were stored under freezing (-18°C), analyzed monthly (TBA and pH), along with samples without extract as a contraI, in the time of eight month. An analyses of pH, thiobarbituric acid rate (TBA), antioxidant activity and phenolics were conducted to determine the antioxidant action of raw extracts. The antioxidant activity was highly significant for two raw extracts, it was finded value between 84 and 94% of the inhibition, in the test of to accelerate oxidation in the fat The purificated extract showed a greater yield in the content of the phenolics. The two extracts were effective to control lipid oxidation in the chicken meat. The sensorial quality of meat was not affected by added of the purificated extract, while, the aqueous, induced a change in the fiavour, wich was not accepted by the sensory paneI. / A ocorrência da oxidação lipídica é considerada como um dos principais fatores que afetam a qualidade da carne e dos produtos cárneos avícolas, conduzindo-os a alterações sensoriais, perda do valor nutricional, formação de constituintes tóxicos e a geração de radicais livres, os quais estão diretamente associados ao surgimento de inúmeras doenças que afetam a saúde humana. Na tentativa de controlar este processo, muitas pesquisas tem sido desenvolvidas, com o propósito do isolamento de fitoquímicos naturais, obtidos de diversos substratos vegetais, que possuam uma efetiva ação como antioxidantes, os quais, além de terem a preferência dos consumidores, também possuem a capacidade de atuarem como auxiliares na prevenção de doenças. Assim, este trabalho avaliou a ação de extratos obtidos da casca da batata inglesa como antioxidantes em cortes de frango. Elaborou-se dois extratos (aquoso e purificado), os quais foram injetados nos cortes de frango, na proporção de 0,5%. Armazenou-se as amostras sob congelamento (-18°C), analizando-as mensalmente (TBA e pH), juntamente com as amostras sem extrato (controle) durante 8 meses. Realizou-se análises de pH, TBA, atividade antioxidante e fenóis para avaliar a ação antioxidante dos extratos. A atividade antioxidante encontrada foi elevada para os dois extratos, encontrando-se valores entre 84 e 94% de inibição no teste da oxidação acelerada em banha. O extrato purificado apresentou um maior rendimento na extração de fenóis. Os dois extratos foram efetivos no controle da oxidação lipídica nos cortes de frango. A qualidade sensorial do produto não foi afetada pela incorporação do extrato purificado, entretanto, no aquoso, houve uma redução nos escores de sabor.

Abstract The rapid increase of energy demand for transportation generates a rise of environmental pollution, stimulating the development of alternative sources of energy. Biomass is considered as the main organic carbon source of energy to substitute petroleum permitting sustainable production of chemicals and transportation fuels. Biowastes, residues and non-edible feedstock possess high potential resources avoiding food competition. This research aims to convert starch-based industrial waste, potato peels, into reducing sugars and platform molecules, such as glucose. These high added-value chemicals can further be transformed into chemicals and fuels. Catalytic conversion of starch, the main constituent of potato peels, was activated with non-conventional technologies to enhance the depolymerisation rate and to reduce energy consumption according to the principles of green chemistry. Depolymerisation of starch was first performed in acidic water as reaction medium assisted with ultrasonic and/or microwave irradiation. Ultrasonic irradiation enhanced mass transfer of heterogeneous system, whereas the use of microwaves improved heat transfer in the reaction medium. The frequency applied leads to different effects on heterogeneous systems: low frequencies irradiation (below 100 kHz) generates turbulences resulting in enhanced transport properties, whereas higher frequencies produce chemical effects. Catalytic conversion of starch into reducing sugars required more energy than individual irradiation could provide. Simultaneous irradiation, combining ultrasound and microwave or several ultrasonic frequencies, on potato peels led to 50% yield of sugars without former separation processes, at moderate temperature. A weak synergetic effect was only observed with potato peels. The second part of this research is dedicated to study the effect of catalytic reaction medium (acids, ionic liquids). More appropriate systems possess the ability to dissolve and hydrolyse carbohydrates: specific ionic liquids. A room-temperature ionic liquid and a task-specific ionic liquid were selected for their solvability properties to dissolve and depolymerise starch present in potato peels. The depolymerisation of starch in the task-specific ionic liquid generated a yield of 43% of sugars, without former separation process. / Tiivistelmä Liikenteen energiantarpeen nopea kasvu on johtanut päästöjen sekä ympäristösaasteiden lisääntymiseen. Biomassa on merkittävä raaka-ainevaihtoehto fossiiliselle hiilelle energian, kemikaalien ja liikenteen polttonesteiden tuotannossa. Erityisesti jätebiomassoilla on suuri merkitys biomassaraaka-aineena, koska ne eivät kilpaile ruoantuotannon kanssa. Väitöskirjatutkimuksen tavoitteena on tärkkelyspohjaisen teollisen jätteen, perunan kuorilietteen, katalyyttinen muuttaminen pelkistäviksi sokereiksi ja ns. platform-kemikaaleiksi, kuten glukoosiksi. Näistä korkean lisäarvon omaavista välituotteista voidaan edelleen valmistaa uusia biomassapohjaisia kemikaaleja ja polttoaineita. Tärkkelyksen, perunankuoren keskeisimmän aineosan, muuttaminen tehtiin tässä työssä mm. ultraääni- ja mikroaaltoavusteisella hajotuksella. Tavoitteena oli parantaa perunan kuorilietteen liukenemis- ja hajoamisnopeutta, lisätä saantoa sekä vähentää energian kulutusta vihreän kemian periaatteiden mukaisesti. Tärkkelyksen depolymerointi tehtiin ensin happokatalysoidussa liuoksessa ultraäänen ja/tai mikroaaltojen avulla. Ultraäänihajotus lisäsi aineensiirtoa heterogeenisessä reaktioväliaineessa, kun taas mikroaallot lisäsivät lämmönsiirtoa reaktioseoksessa. Eri ultraäänitaajuuksilla havaittiin olevan erilaisia vaikutuksia reaktioseokseen: alhaisilla taajuuksilla (alle 100 kHz) muodostuneet pyörteiset virtaukset edistivät aineensiirtoa ja korkeammat taajuudet kemiallisia ilmiöitä. Tärkkelyksen katalyyttinen depolymerointi vaatii enemmän energiaa kuin perinteisillä menetelmillä, kuten lämmittämällä, voidaan tuottaa. Yhdistämällä ultraäänen ja mikroaaltojen säteilytystä tai eri taajuuden omaavia ultraääniä, yli 50% perunajätteen tärkkelyksestä saadaan hajotettua pelkistyneiksi sokereiksi alhaisissa lämpötiloissa. Sen sijaan, ainoastaan perunankuorijätteellä havaittiin heikko synenerginen efekti mitä ei havaittu vertailunäytteellä (perunajauho). Toisena tavoitteena oli tutkia katalyyttisen reaktioseoksen (hapot, ioniset liuottimet) vaikutusta perunan kuorijätteen ja sen sisältämän tärkkelyksen liuottamiseen ja hajottamiseen. Erityisesti keskityttiin uusiin, spesifisiin ionisiin liuottimiin, jotka kykenevät samanaikaisesti sekä liuottamaan että hydrolysoimaan hiilihydraatteja. Huoneenlämpötilassa toimiva spesifinen ioninen liuotin valittiin sen katalyyttisten ominaisuuksien vuoksi. Tässä liuottimessa kuorilietteen sisältämästä tärkkelyksestä pelkistyneiden sokerien saanto oli 43%. / Résumé La forte demande en énergie, la conscience sociale sur les changements climatiques mondiaux et l'épuisement à moyen terme des réserves d’énergies fossiles stimulent le développement de ressources alternatives. Considérée comme la principale source de carbone organique renouvelable, la biomasse peut être utilisée pour remplacer les carburants d’origine fossile tout en étant plus respectueuse de l’environnement. Des déchets biosourcés ainsi que des végétaux d’origine agricole ou forestière, appelés biomasse végétale, possèdent de fort potentiels évitant la concurrence alimentaire. Cette recherche a pour objectif de convertir un déchet industriel amidonné, des pelures de pommes de terre, en sucres réducteurs et molécules plateformes, tels que le glucose, qui par la suite peuvent être transformées en carburants de transport. L’utilisation des ultrasons ainsi que des micro-ondes, méthodes non-conventionnelles, en milieu acide ont permis d’améliorer le rendement ainsi que de réduire la consommation énergétique en accord avec les principes de la chimie verte. L’irradiation ultrasonore améliore le transfert de masse de systèmes hétérogènes, alors que les micro-ondes renforcent le transfert de chaleur dans le milieu réactionnel. De plus, la fréquence ultrasonore appliquée induit différents effets sur le système : les ultrasons de basse fréquence (en dessous de 100 kHz) génèrent des turbulences améliorant les propriétés de transport de la matière, alors que les ultrasons de plus haute fréquence produisent des effets chimiques, tels que la formation de radicaux libres. L’apport énergétique fourni par les ultrasons et micro-ondes seuls étant insuffisant, l’utilisation d’irradiations simultanées et combinées a conduit à un rendement de 50% de sucres depuis l’amidon, ne nécessitant aucun procédé de séparation pré-réactionnel. Un faible effet synergique a pu être observé sur la dépolymérisation de la pelure de pommes de terre. L’étude d’un milieu réactionnel permettant simultanément la dissolution ainsi que l’hydrolyse des glucides présents dans la matière première est développée dans la seconde partie de ce mémoire. Certains liquides ioniques possèdent les propriétés recherchées. La dépolymérisation de l'amidon dans un liquide ionique à tâches spécifiques a permis d’obtenir un rendement de 43% de sucres, sans aucun procédé de séparation pré-réactionnel.