Thesis (M. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2007 / Four different South African indigenous (Naked Neck (NN), Ovambo (OVB), Venda (VD) and Potchefstroom Koekoek (PK) chicken breeds were used in this study. From each of the four breeds of chicken, 40 hens and 8 cocks were selected randomly. Two groups each of sixteen cocks were subsequently formed: high performing (HP) and low performing (LP) groups to determine the relationships between cock semen viability and the fertility of artificially inseminated South African indigenous layer breeds. Semen was collected following five minutes of sexual massage (5SM) and evaluated for semen volume (ml), sperm motility (%), live sperm (%) and total sperm (x109/ml). Semen from each cock was then used to inseminate five hens per breed, in each treatment. Each hen was inseminated twice a week throughout the duration of the trial. During the experimental period, each hen was inseminated with 0.05 ml diluted semen. The artificially inseminated hens were examined for average egg weight (g), fertility (%), hatchability of set eggs (%), live chicks (%), normal chicks (%) and chick weight (g). A total of 1600 eggs, i.e. 400 eggs from each breed were collected in three batches following artificial insemination from individually caged hens and were hatched to compare hatching parameters among breeds. The hatchability traits of hens of the four breeds (NN, OVB, PK and VD) were compared. Hatching egg weight had significant (P < 0.05) difference among the four breeds. The results of this study indicate that semen viability exemplified by ejaculate volume, sperm motility; live sperm and total sperm per ejaculate were significantly (P < 0.01) superior in the HP cocks compared to the LP cocks. Hens inseminated with semen from the HP cocks in each experimental group resulted in higher egg weight (g), fertility (%), hatchability of set eggs (%), live chicks (%), normal chicks (%) and chick weight (g). Significant positive relationships existed between semen volume and sperm motility (P < 0.05), semen volume and live sperm cells (P < 0.01), semen volume and total sperm (P < 0.01) in NN, OVB and VD, with negative correlations in PK. Some positive correlations were found between sperm motility and live spermatozoa (P < 0.01), sperm motility and total sperm (P < 0.01), live sperm and total sperm (P< 0.01) in NN, OVB, PK and VND. Fertility was the highest in the HP group. Fertility was also the highest in PK, intermediate and similar in OVB and NN and lowest in VD (P<0.05). Breed had a significant effect on hatchability of fertile eggs (P<0.05). Hatchability of total eggs set was highest in PK and NN, intermediate in OVB and lowest in VD (P<0.05). Breed had a significant effect on live, normal chicks and chick weight (P<0.05). Live chick was the highest in NN, whereas at day-old, normal chick and chick weight at hatching were the highest (23.50 ± 0.11) (P<0.05) in PK (98.14 ± 0.67 vs. 37.90 ± 0.28 g), intermediate and similar in NN (87.90 ± 0.63 vs. 23.50 ± 0.11) and OVB (87.75 ± 0.45 vs. 32.81 ± 0.49 g) and the lowest but with an acceptable value in VD (76.85 ± 0.46 vs. 26.90 ± 0.36 g). There were some correlations among different hatchability traits depending on breed. The correlations were more profound among PK. It was clear that chick weight as percent of egg weight was not just a function of egg weight, and that genotype also played an important role favouring the heavier breeds. The results obtained in this study on the relationships between cock semen viability and the fertility of artificially inseminated South African indigenous layer breeds elucidate that the use of high performing (HP) cocks following five minutes of sexual massage, prior to semen collection and artificial insemination of layers is a practical method for optimising sperm viability and subsequent fertility of hens. The results of this study suggest that the Potchefstroom Koekoek (PK) cocks and hens are superior to the Naked Necks (NN), Ovambo (OVB) and Venda (VD). The Ovambo and Naked Neck cocks ranked second in donating quality semen as well as in improving the fertility and hatchability traits of the indigenous chicken breeds. Thus selection of high performing cocks through five minutes sexual massage prior to semen collection and use is recommended for poultry AI breeding programmes.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Animal production)) --University of Limpopo, 2011 / A study was conducted to examine the effect of protein level of the diet of Naked neck hens on egg production, hatchability and chick productivity. The first part of the experiment determined the effect of protein level on feed intake, number of eggs produced, egg weight, egg white nitrogen content, egg yolk nitrogen content, egg hatchability and chick hatch-weight. A total of 25 hens aged 30 weeks were confined in cages and fed diets differing in protein content. A complete randomized design, comprising of diets differing in protein levels (P12.94%, P13.94%, P14.38%, P15.75% and P18.13% CP), replicated five times with one hen in each replicate was used. Semen was collected from one cock to fertilize all hens. Protein level had an effect on (P<0.05) feed intake and egg white nitrogen content. However, protein level of the diet of hens had no effect(P>0.05) on the number of eggs produced, egg white nitrogen content, egg yolk,egg weight, egg hatchability and chick hatch-weight. Quadratic analyses indicated that feed intake, number of eggs produced, egg weight, egg white nitrogen content, egg yolk nitrogen content, hatchability and chick hatch-weight were optimized at different protein levels of 14.7 (r2 = 0. 623),14.9 (r2 = 0.568),13.9 (r2 = 0.094), 18.2 (r2 = 0.563), 15.1(r2 = 0.424), 15.9 (r2 = 0.451) and 15.9 %(r2 = 0.898) , respectively. The second part of the experiment determined the effect of protein level of hens on productivity of their progenies from a day old up to 13 weeks of age. A total of 95 chicks hatched from the first part of the study were assigned to 20 floor pens according to the number of chicks hatched. Chicks had an average initial live weight of 35 ± 2 g per bird. The chicks were fed the same commercial grower diet and fresh water ad libitum up to seven weeks of age. Protein level of the diet of Naked neck hens had an effect (P<0.05) on feed intake, live weight and feed conversion ratio of chicks from a day old up to seven weeks of age. However, protein level of the diet of Naked neck hens had no effect (P>0.05) on growth rate and mortality of chickens from a day old to seven weeks of age. Feed intake, feed conversion ratio, growth rate and mortality of chickens were optimized atdifferent protein levels of 15.8 (r2 = 0.298), 16.1 (r2 = 0.236), 16.1 (r2 = 0.077) and 14.3 % (r2 = 0.617), respectively. Protein level of the diet of Naked neck hens had no effect (P>0.05) on feed intake, growth rate and feed conversion ratio of both their male and female progenies between eight and 13 weeks of age. Protein levels of the diet of hens had an effect (P<0.05) live weight of their male progenies and carcass weights of both their male and female progenies at 13 weeks of age. However, the level of protein of the diet of hens had no effect (P>0.05) on live weight of their male progenies, and breast meat yield, breast meat nitrogen content and fat pad weight of both their male and female progenies at 13 weeks of age. Live weight,breast meat yield, breast meat nitrogen content and fat pad weight of their male progenies at 13 weeks of age were optimized at different protein levels of the diets of hens of 18.9 (r2 = 0.666), 15.6 (r2 = 0.081), 15.4 (r2 = 0.786) and 17.7 %(r2 = 0.775), respectively. Similarly, live weight, carcass weight, breast meat yield, breast meat nitrogen content and fat pad weight of their female progenies at 13 weeks of age were optimized at different protein levels of 15.7 (r2 = 0.294),15.4 (r2 = 0.180), 15.8 (r2 = 0.059), 15.1 (r2 = 0.882) and 16.1 % (r2 = 0.405), respectively. It is concluded that protein level of the diet of the hen may affect its productivity and that of its progeny. However, the calculated protein levels for optimum productivity will depend on the production parameter in question. / National Research Foundation

Thesis (MSc. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2016 / The broiler industry in South Africa consists of both small-scale and commercial poultry farmers. It provides the cheapest source of protein, absorbs labour and contributes massively to the agricultural sector. Broiler industry absorbs labour from the labour market, both skilled and unskilled; therefore it is a good source of employment. The specific objectives of the study included determining factors influencing productivity among smallholder broiler producers in Mopani District using Stochastic Frontier Production Function and technical efficiency analysis. The profitability of smallholder broiler production in the study area was also estimated using the Gross Margin Analysis. Furthermore, determinants of market participation among smallholder broiler producers in the study area were analysed using the Logit model. The Stochastic Frontier Production Function results revealed a positive relationship between the productivity of the farmers in their broiler production and labour, feeds, stock size and vaccines. The results also showed that feeds was significant at 1% while stock size was significant at 10% level. The technical efficiency results indicated that smallholder broiler farmers in Mopani District could save an average of 23.4 % in production costs and realize a maximum cost saving of 95.8% in production costs. The Gross Margin Analysis revealed that the cost of feeds were the highest incurred, taking up 70.61% of the total costs of production and the second highest being cost of stock comprising of 15.11% of the total production costs. The Logit results on the determinants of market participation showed that household size, income received per month, experience, land size, access to market information, distance to the market, profitability and land ownership are statistically significant in determining participation in the market. Based on the findings from the study, it is recommended that linkages between the formal markets and the smallholder farmers be established for farmers not participating in the market. Farmers who making profit and have more experience in broiler production should be provided with a platform to grow into commercial farming. This could be through subsidies or provision of other incentives that are key to enhancing expansion, such as land and funds.

Poverty remains a critical issue mostly in the rural South Africa. Various initiatives, policies and programs have been enacted by the government with attempting to reduce poverty at the national and provincial levels; poverty is yet to be abated. The target of the Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG1) of halving poverty by the year 2015 notwithstanding, poverty remains a threat to quality livelihoods. Agriculture has continued to be one of the pillars of government efforts to address poverty. However, in livestock production interventions, efforts of government had largely been on cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and exotic poultry with little attention being given to indigenous poultry production (IPP). This study explores the option of using IPP to address rural poverty by capitalizing on its minimal inputs while recognizing its prevalence in a variety of households. The study addresses the characterization of the IPP from the perspectives of housing, feeding, healthcare management, breeding and marketing options.Skill competencies of the indigenous poultry farmers (IPFs) and the Agricultural Development Technicians (ADTs) were examined. This study reviewed poultry models in different parts of the world with special attention to Africa. The human resource development program of the department of rural development and agrarian reform was discussed. The study employed the use of multi-methods approach, the quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. Descriptive statistical analysis, frequent count, percentage, means, standard deviation, chisquare, and principal component analysis was used in the quantitative data analysis while the “open social system” was used for the qualitative methodology. Findings revealed that IPFs face some challenges among which are, the poor housing that exposed the birds to inclement weather, predator attacks and stock theft, high mortality of chicks after hatching and expensive feed for the flock. The IPFs showed competencies in nine skill items that included ability to identify chicken predators (x=3.92) and high yielding chickens (x=3.79); control of predators(x=3.77); methods of using ethno veterinary drugs to treat chicken diseases and pests (x=3.72), and identify signs of diseases (x=3.69), among others. However, the ADTs did not show any competency in any of the 32 skills items. The principal component analysis with Varimax rotation was performed to ascertain the dimensionality of the measures. Six factors with eigen value of >1, which accounted for 77.317% were extracted, with each factor loading ranging from 0.523 to 0.93. Factor loading after rotation that emerged on the same component was described; as brooding, shelter and care of the chicks; predators and healthcare; hygiene and litter management; feeds and feeding stuff; and record keeping and marketing. The findings on the human resource development revealed that staff meetings were the most common method of capacity development. This was followed by in-service-training, formal study, workshop, and on the job training. The farmers’ field school and study tours were sparingly used. However, respondents were in favor of on-site training, staff meetings, formal study and in-service training. The findings on the appropriate model suggest a theoretical indigenous poultry production model (IPPM) for the Eastern Cape Province (ECP). The “open social system” was used to develop a framework for an indigenous poultry cooperative society (to be known as Abafuyi Benkukhu Zemveli [ABZ]). This was meant to create a binding force for capacity development, a strong economic foundation through equity contributions, creation of marketing channels, and the development of a concept of ‘‘our own'' product in the market. Lastly, the study offers options for a training program that would accommodate the new initiatives, with a strong capacity development training approach. In this context, the study advocates for institutional support for the IPFs and the incorporation of indigenous poultry in the curriculum of the agricultural training programs at higher education institutions in South Africa.

Thesis (M.Sc. Agriculture (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / The poultry industry consists of the broiler and layer production. Most of the broiler chickens produced by smallholder farmers in villages are sold to local customers with lower degrees of processing, compared to large commercial farmers who have access to retail and export markets. The aim of this study was to analyse the determinants of gross margin and savings among small-scale broiler producers in Vhembe District of Limpopo Province. In the analyses the following objectives were performed; identifying and describing their socio-economic characteristics, assessing their gross margin, analysing the factors influencing their gross margin and lastly, by analysing the factors affecting savings among these farmers. The study was conducted in three municipalities (Makhado, Thulamela and Musina) under Vhembe District, where 60 respondents were purposively and randomly selected. The total number of households per municipality in Vhembe District were used to determine the exact number of broiler producers to be interviewed in each municipality due to insufficient data available regarding the total number of broiler producers in the district. The respondents were interviewed face to face using structured questionnaires. To achieve the study objectives the study used Descriptive statistics, Gross Margin analysis, Multiple Linear Regression and Logistic Regression model. The results of the study showed that the small-scale broiler producers in Vhembe District are profitable, with an average Gross Margin of R6470.78 per cycle. Six variables from Multiple Linear Regression analysis were found to have an influence on Gross Margin among small-scale broiler producers in Vhembe District. These variables were gender, primary economic activity, cost of day-old chicks, feed cost, electricity cost and labour cost. Seven variables from Logistic Regression analysis were found to have significant influence on savings. These variables were age, primary economic activity, monthly income, gross margin, feeds cost, cost of day-old chicks and vaccines. The study recommends that the broiler producers invest in other heating methods that do not require the use of electricity since it plays an important role towards the savings. The study further recommends that the Department of Agriculture should encourage the small-scale broiler producers to register their enterprise to be able to access extension services and other services from the department when necessary.

Thesis (M.Sc. Agriculture (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / The agricultural sector is dominated by broiler production and it is the key source of animal proteins followed by beef. South Africa is described as a net importer of chicken meat, given that broiler consumption of broiler is greater than supply. Additionally, the South African Poultry industry has raised concerns regarding the high influx of cheap broiler imports into the domestic market. This led to an increase of the ad valorem tariff charged on poultry imports in April 2020 from a previous adjustment in September 2013. It is vital to understand how import tariff changes affect the broiler sector since little is known about how domestic broiler production is responding to an increased tariff. The study, therefore, attempted to determine the relationship between domestic broiler production, import tariff, domestic prices, and import volume. The study aimed to investigate the long-run relationship between import tariff, import quantity, domestic production, and prices (retail and producer) in the broiler sector of South Africa for the period (April 2010 – June 2020). Brazilian frozen chicken imports were selected for study given their relatively high domestic demand in South Africa. In addition, Brazil primarily faces the import tariffs charged by South Africa as the main country of origin for South African imports. The Augmented Dickey-Fuller test, Johansen Cointegration tests, and the Error Correction Model were used as analytical tools in achieving the study objectives. The results for the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test and the Johansen cointegration test showed that all variables were stationary at first difference and cointegrated. The ECM results concluded the existence of a long-run relationship between domestic production, ad valorem tariff, and import volume. As the tariff charged changes, the domestic production increased by 4% in the long run which might be deemed a small advantage in terms of the production scale and therefore not sufficient. The study recommended that strategies that reduce barriers of entry for small-scale farmers such as reduced production costs be implemented to boost domestic production. Lastly, since domestic production is responding positively to tariff adjustment, a thorough investigation is necessary to prove dumping allegations against broiler importers as this will enable the country to impose anti-dumping duties on all countries. / Agri SETA