Northern Botswana's rural agricultural settlements bordering national parks and game reserves. In two study areas (Khumaga and Gweta, bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park), spatial, temporal and prey-type patterns of livestock predation were assessed. Cattle, goats, horses, donkeys and sheep were the key livestock types. Lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena and the Nile crocodile (occurring only in Khumaga) were the key predators. Oral interviews with farmers in these villages provided insights into the patterns and impacts of livestock predation on rural economies. Khumaga's livestock predation scenario is dominated by lion predation on cattle, goats and donkeys, leopard predation on small stock and calves, and crocodile on goats. Wet season predation rates were higher than dry seasons', except for spotted hyena, black-backed jackal and leopard. Leopard and black-backed jackal are dominant small stock predators in Gweta. lion are the main cattle and donkey predators (though at lower frequencies). Dry season predation rates are higher. Farmers who own more livestock appear to lose more Northern Botswana's rural agricultural settlements bordering national parks and game reserves. In two study areas (Khumaga and Gweta, bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park), spatial, temporal and prey-type patterns of livestock predation were assessed. Cattle, goats, horses, donkeys and sheep were the key livestock types. Lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena and the Nile crocodile (occurring only in Khumaga) were the key predators. Oral interviews with farmers in these villages provided insights into the patterns and impacts of livestock predation on rural economies. Khumaga's livestock predation scenario is dominated by lion predation on cattle, goats and donkeys, leopard predation on small stock and calves, and crocodile on goats. Wet season predation rates were higher than dry seasons', except for spotted hyena, black-backed jackal and leopard. Leopard and black-backed jackal are dominant small stock predators in Gweta. lion are the main cattle and donkey predators (though at lower frequencies). Dry season predation rates are higher. Farmers who own more livestock appear to lose more cattle than those who own few. Gweta contrasts with Khumaga, having livestock predation highest during dry seasons, less reduction in livestock sales and a lower value of pending compensation claims. These predation patterns synchronise with movements of zebra and wildebeest to and from the Boteti river. Losses of livestock affect the utility derived from livestock and monetary gains from direct sales. Costs due to loss of biodiversity, though not quantified, add to those borne by the State through predator control. Both the State and the farmers loose. These losses reduce the incentives of the latter to conserve species that contribute reduction in their returns. The issue of State expenditure on predator control illustrates the possible need for re-direction of such funds into farmer-based predator control, much as an integral part of the current southern African trend of community-based natural resource management. Key words: livestock predation, predator control, economics, conservation, Botswana. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Human wildlife conflict is a considerable conservation challenge that threatens many carnivore species worldwide and is a result of complex socio-economic and ecological processes. An understanding of the drivers of conflict is essential for any efforts to achieve coexistence. This study investigated the levels of conflict, livestock management and tolerance amongst the farming communities of the Southern and Western Kalahari in Botswana. A questionnaire survey was completed with 310 farmers throughout the region. The majority of respondents regarded coexisting with carnivores as a challenge, with losses due to depredation perceived as the greatest problem facing farmers. Conflict was widespread throughout the study area, with some spatial variations for certain species. Cattle management levels were low and while smallstock management was better, the use of improved levels of management could reduce current levels of conflict. Tolerance levels were generally low with few respondents seeing the benefits of coexistence with carnivore species. The results indicated that farm type, gender, education level, source of income, livestock numbers, location and land use all have an effect on perceived conflict and tolerance levels and strongly interact with each other. In general cattleposts were characterised by higher proportions of females, lower education levels, more benefits derived from wildlife and veld products and fewer livestock than fenced ranches. They also experienced more conflict, carried out more management and had better tolerance levels. It could be that closer connections to the land and deriving benefits from natural resources resulted in more tolerance and this is certainly worth further investigation. An improvement in the use of effective methods of livestock management, targeted environmental education programs to develop a greater awareness for the conservation value of carnivores and a diversification of livelihoods to include benefits from natural resources have the potential to reduce conflict and improve tolerance in the Kalahari region.