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In the business of packaging engineering, a large consumption of time is placed on evaluating new materials to provide cost savings to a company. This evaluation is made by using test methods such as those found in ASTM D4169-16, which helps to simulate shipping and distribution conditions. A key problem is that this test method can take up to multiple months, and sometimes years to complete. The apparatus created in this study allows for a comparison to be made between currently used films and prospective films in approximately ten hours. This allows for a prescreening of new films to be done before completing full ASTM shipment and distribution testing.This study focuses on coextruded multilayer polymer films and the damage brought upon them in forms of puncture and abrasion through shipment and distribution.

With increasing knowledge about the indoor climate in recent years, preventive methods to avoid health problems caused by deficient building performance may become preferable to reactive methods. Benefits from preventive actions have been suggested for late building design phases, construction, and building operations, however, few data are available that demonstrate the benefits of preventive actions in early planning phases. In a case study, expected building performance in respect to indoor air quality and thermal conditions in a large judicial facility in North America was evaluated retrospectively at the end of the schematic design and substantial completion phases. A process for evaluation of building performance at schematic design is developed from existing procedures for building diagnostics in operating buildings. Criteria for evaluation of expected building environmental quality at schematic design as available from standards and guidelines are presented. The results of the study show that building diagnostics at schematic design can be an effective mean of prevention of occupant health problems. Further findings indicate that the assurance of indoor environmental quality can be improved, if the criteria for expected building performance are defined and complied with from early on. It is concluded that implementation of building diagnostics in early project phases can reduce the likelihood of adverse health effects in operating buildings. / Master of Science

In this work, the possibility of realising object tracking by implementing predictive methods with static object detectors is explored. The static object detectors are obtained as models trained on a machine learning algorithm, or in other words, a deep neural network. Specifically, it is the single shot detector inception v2 network that will be used to train such models. Predictive methods will be incorporated to the end of improving the obtained models’ precision, i.e. their performance with respect to accuracy. Namely, Lagrangian mechanics will be employed to derived equations of motion for three different scenarios in which the object is to be tracked. These equations of motion will be implemented as predictive methods by discretising and combining them with four different iterative formulae. In ch. 1, the fundamentals of supervised machine learning, neural networks, convolutional neural networks as well as the workings of the single shot detector algorithm, approaches to hyperparameter optimisation and other relevant theory is established. This includes derivations of the relevant equations of motion and the iterative formulae with which they were implemented. In ch. 2, the experimental set-up that was utilised during data collection, and the manner by which the acquired data was used to produce training, validation and test datasets is described. This is followed by a description of how the approach of random search was used to train 64 models on 300×300 datasets, and 32 models on 512×512 datasets. Consecutively, these models are evaluated based on their performance with respect to camera-to-object distance and object velocity. In ch. 3, the trained models were verified to possess multi-scale detection capabilities, as is characteristic of models trained on the single shot detector network. While the former is found to be true irrespective of the resolution-setting of the dataset that the model has been trained on, it is found that the performance with respect to varying object velocity is significantly more consistent for the lower resolution models as they operate at a higher detection rate. Ch. 3 continues with that the implemented predictive methods are evaluated. This is done by comparing the resulting deviations when they are let to predict the missing data points from a collected detection pattern, with varying sampling percentages. It is found that the best predictive methods are those that make use of the least amount of previous data points. This followed from that the data upon which evaluations were made contained an unreasonable amount of noise, considering that the iterative formulae implemented do not take noise into account. Moreover, the lower resolution models were found to benefit more than those trained on the higher resolution datasets because of the higher detection frequency they can employ. In ch. 4, it is argued that the concept of combining predictive methods with static object detectors to the end of obtaining an object tracker is promising. Moreover, the models obtained on the single shot detector network are concluded to be good candidates for such applications. However, the predictive methods studied in this thesis should be replaced with some method that can account for noise, or be extended to be able to account for it. A profound finding is that the single shot detector inception v2 models trained on a low-resolution dataset were found to outperform those trained on a high-resolution dataset in certain regards due to the higher detection rate possible on lower resolution frames. Namely, in performance with respect to object velocity and in that predictive methods performed better on the low-resolution models. / I detta arbete undersöks möjligheten att åstadkomma objektefterföljning genom att implementera prediktiva metoder med statiska objektdetektorer. De statiska objektdetektorerna erhålls som modeller tränade på en maskininlärnings-algoritm, det vill säga djupa neurala nätverk. Specifikt så är det en modifierad version av entagningsdetektor-nätverket, så kallat entagningsdetektor inception v2 nätverket, som används för att träna modellerna. Prediktiva metoder inkorporeras sedan för att förbättra modellernas förmåga att kunna finna ett eftersökt objekt. Nämligen används Lagrangiansk mekanik för härleda rörelseekvationer för vissa scenarion i vilka objektet är tänkt att efterföljas. Rörelseekvationerna implementeras genom att låta diskretisera dem och därefter kombinera dem med fyra olika iterationsformler. I kap. 2 behandlas grundläggande teori för övervakad maskininlärning, neurala nätverk, faltande neurala nätverk men också de grundläggande principer för entagningsdetektor-nätverket, närmanden till hyperparameter-optimering och övrig relevant teori. Detta inkluderar härledningar av rörelseekvationerna och de iterationsformler som de skall kombineras med. I kap. 3 så redogörs för den experimentella uppställning som användes vid datainsamling samt hur denna data användes för att producera olika data set. Därefter följer en skildring av hur random search kunde användas för att träna 64 modeller på data av upplösning 300×300 och 32 modeller på data av upplösning 512×512. Vidare utvärderades modellerna med avseende på deras prestanda för varierande kamera-till-objekt avstånd och objekthastighet. I kap. 4 så verifieras det att modellerna har en förmåga att detektera på flera skalor, vilket är ett karaktäristiskt drag för modeller tränade på entagninsdetektor-nätverk. Medan detta gällde för de tränade modellerna oavsett vilken upplösning av data de blivit tränade på, så fanns detekteringsprestandan med avseende på objekthastighet vara betydligt mer konsekvent för modellerna som tränats på data av lägre upplösning. Detta resulterade av att dessa modeller kan arbeta med en högre detekteringsfrekvens. Kap. 4 fortsätter med att de prediktiva metoderna utvärderas, vilket de kunde göras genom att jämföra den resulterande avvikelsen de respektive metoderna innebar då de läts arbeta på ett samplat detektionsmönster, sparat från då en tränad modell körts. I och med denna utvärdering så testades modellerna för olika samplingsgrader. Det visade sig att de bästa iterationsformlerna var de som byggde på färre tidigare datapunkter. Anledningen för detta är att den insamlade data, som testerna utfördes på, innehöll en avsevärd mängd brus. Med tanke på att de implementerade iterationsformlerna inte tar hänsyn till brus, så fick detta avgörande konsekvenser. Det fanns även att alla prediktiva metoder förbättrade objektdetekteringsförmågan till en högre utsträckning för modellerna som var tränade på data av lägre upplösning, vilket följer från att de kan arbeta med en högre detekteringsfrekvens. I kap. 5, argumenteras det, bland annat, för att konceptet att kombinera prediktiva metoder med statiska objektdetektorer för att åstadkomma objektefterföljning är lovande. Det slutleds även att modeller som erhålls från entagningsdetektor-nätverket är lovande kandidater för detta applikationsområde, till följd av deras höga detekteringsfrekvenser och förmåga att kunna detektera på flera skalor. Metoderna som användes för att förutsäga det efterföljda föremålets position fanns vara odugliga på grund av deras oförmåga att kunna hantera brus. Det slutleddes därmed att dessa antingen bör utökas till att kunna hantera brus eller ersättas av lämpligare metoder. Den mest väsentliga slutsats detta arbete presenterar är att lågupplösta entagninsdetektormodeller utgör bättre kandidater än de tränade på data av högre upplösning till följd av den ökade detekteringsfrekvens de erbjuder.

A presente dissertação trata de um estudo teórico-experimental sobre a perda de pressão em canais de diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico de refrigerantes halogenados. Trocadores de calor baseados na ebulição convectiva, em condições de micro-escala são amplamente estudados devido à intensificação da troca de calor proporcionada e a possibilidade de compactação de sistemas de resfriamento. Proporcionam também a redução do inventário de refrigerante e do material utilizado no processo de fabricação do trocador. Porém, o incremento da transferência de calor é acompanhada pelo aumento da perda de pressão, parâmetro também fundamental para o desempenho do sistema. Para o projeto satisfatório e otimizado destes dispositivos são necessários métodos de previsão de transferência de calor e perda de pressão. Entretanto, no caso de canais de diâmetro reduzido, tais ferramentas não encontram-se disponíveis e trocadores de calor baseados em escoamentos bifásicos no interior de canais de diâmetro reduzido vêm sendo desenvolvidos heuristicamente. Desta forma, inicialmente neste estudo, realizou-se uma revisão crítica da literatura envolvendo critérios de transição entre padrões de escoamento, fração de vazio superficial, perda de pressão no interior de canais com diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico e os principais métodos de estimativa da perda de pressão para macro e micro-escala. Resultados experimentais para perda de pressão levantados neste estudo em condições adiabáticas para os fluidos R245fa e R134a e tubo com 1,1 mm de diâmetro interno foram descritos e comparados aos métodos preditivos encontrados na literatura. Finalmente um novo método da previsão da perda de pressão foi proposto baseado na correlação de Müller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986), ajustando os valores do coeficiente e do expoente com base nos resultados experimentais levantados. / A theorical and experimental study on two-phase pressure drop inside micro-scale channels has been developed. Recently, the study of flow boiling in micro-scale channel have received special attention from academia and industry due to several advantages that they offer such as minimization of fluid inventory, high degree of compactness of the heat exchangers, better performance and the capacity of dissipate extremely high heat fluxes. The significant heat transfer coefficient enhancement provided by micro-scale channels comes together with a huge pressure drop penalty that impacts the efficiency of the overall cooling system. So, accurate predictive methods to evaluate the pressure drop are necessary for the appropriate design of the system and for its optimization. In the present study, firstly, a critical review on studies from literature was performed that covers criteria of transition between micro- and macro-scale flow boiling, void fraction, frictional pressure drop on micro-scale channels and the leading frictional pressure drop predictive methods. Experimental pressure drop results were acquired under adiabatic conditions for R245fa and R134a fluids and internal diameter tube of 1.1 mm. Then, the leading pressure drop predictive methods were compared against the present database. Also a new correlation based on Muller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986) method was proposed in this work by adjusting new empirical constants based on the present database together with previous results obtained by Tibiriçá et al. (2011) for a 2.3 mm ID tube.

A presente dissertação trata de um estudo teórico-experimental sobre a perda de pressão em canais de diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico de refrigerantes halogenados. Trocadores de calor baseados na ebulição convectiva, em condições de micro-escala são amplamente estudados devido à intensificação da troca de calor proporcionada e a possibilidade de compactação de sistemas de resfriamento. Proporcionam também a redução do inventário de refrigerante e do material utilizado no processo de fabricação do trocador. Porém, o incremento da transferência de calor é acompanhada pelo aumento da perda de pressão, parâmetro também fundamental para o desempenho do sistema. Para o projeto satisfatório e otimizado destes dispositivos são necessários métodos de previsão de transferência de calor e perda de pressão. Entretanto, no caso de canais de diâmetro reduzido, tais ferramentas não encontram-se disponíveis e trocadores de calor baseados em escoamentos bifásicos no interior de canais de diâmetro reduzido vêm sendo desenvolvidos heuristicamente. Desta forma, inicialmente neste estudo, realizou-se uma revisão crítica da literatura envolvendo critérios de transição entre padrões de escoamento, fração de vazio superficial, perda de pressão no interior de canais com diâmetro reduzido durante escoamento bifásico e os principais métodos de estimativa da perda de pressão para macro e micro-escala. Resultados experimentais para perda de pressão levantados neste estudo em condições adiabáticas para os fluidos R245fa e R134a e tubo com 1,1 mm de diâmetro interno foram descritos e comparados aos métodos preditivos encontrados na literatura. Finalmente um novo método da previsão da perda de pressão foi proposto baseado na correlação de Müller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986), ajustando os valores do coeficiente e do expoente com base nos resultados experimentais levantados. / A theorical and experimental study on two-phase pressure drop inside micro-scale channels has been developed. Recently, the study of flow boiling in micro-scale channel have received special attention from academia and industry due to several advantages that they offer such as minimization of fluid inventory, high degree of compactness of the heat exchangers, better performance and the capacity of dissipate extremely high heat fluxes. The significant heat transfer coefficient enhancement provided by micro-scale channels comes together with a huge pressure drop penalty that impacts the efficiency of the overall cooling system. So, accurate predictive methods to evaluate the pressure drop are necessary for the appropriate design of the system and for its optimization. In the present study, firstly, a critical review on studies from literature was performed that covers criteria of transition between micro- and macro-scale flow boiling, void fraction, frictional pressure drop on micro-scale channels and the leading frictional pressure drop predictive methods. Experimental pressure drop results were acquired under adiabatic conditions for R245fa and R134a fluids and internal diameter tube of 1.1 mm. Then, the leading pressure drop predictive methods were compared against the present database. Also a new correlation based on Muller-Steinhagen e Heck (1986) method was proposed in this work by adjusting new empirical constants based on the present database together with previous results obtained by Tibiriçá et al. (2011) for a 2.3 mm ID tube.