In Canada, as in many other affluent nations, private well water consumers remain at risk for gastrointestinal (GI) illness due to fecal contamination of groundwater. There have been numerous documented outbreaks of GI illness related to contaminated drinking water. While the general risk to well water consumers has been established, the risk in southern Ontario is poorly understood. As a preliminary step towards understanding this risk, a study of Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination in private well water was undertaken. Spatial scan statistics were employed to determine the extent of contamination for over 30,000 private wells in southeastern Ontario between 2008 and 2012, inclusive. This analysis revealed one large, temporally stable elevated risk region, and three significant smaller regions within it. The methodology utilized in the primary investigation was then applied to a 2012 dataset for all of southern Ontario, resulting in the identification of three regions of elevated risk. The presence of E. coli, a traditional fecal indicator organism, indicates lack of water potability. To provide knowledge regarding the origins of fecal contamination in southeastern Ontario, a molecular microbial source tracking (MST) study was undertaken. A quantitative real-time Bacteroidales PCR assay specifically targeting human, bovine, and general (specific to 10 hosts) was optimized and applied to 716 private well water samples. Almost half of the samples showed evidence of human fecal contamination, whereas only 13% contained evidence of bovine fecal contamination. Approximately one quarter of well samples tested positive for the general host Bacteroidales assay, with an additional one quarter testing negative for all MST assays. Additionally, spatial scan statistics revealed a region of human-sourced contamination, which geographically corresponded with the E. coli contamination cluster for the same study year. The presence of E. coli contamination clusters among private wells reveals an at-risk group of well water consumers. As such, public health practitioners may use this information to target well stewardship programs in higher risk regions. Humans were the predominant contributors of fecal contamination to private wells within the primary study region. These findings may enable future preventative measures by providing insight into the true origins of groundwater fecal pollution. / Thesis (Master, Pathology & Molecular Medicine) -- Queen's University, 2014-06-02 14:50:16.685

Private wells are understudied potential sources of opportunistic pathogen (OP) infections. OPs, including Legionella and Mycobacterium, are of particular concern for immunocompromised individuals and are known to proliferate in drinking water systems. Much of our knowledge surrounding OP occurrence and growth in drinking water relates to municipal drinking water systems, which primarily use surface water sources and are always treated with primary and secondary disinfection in United States. However, OP occurrence and growth in private wells is not well understood and it is unclear how the knowledge developed in municipal systems will translate to private well systems with rare and infrequent exposure to chemical disinfectants. In addition, because private wells are more susceptible to microbial contamination than municipal systems, the impact of flooding on OP occurrence is of particular concern. Two private well field surveys were conducted to document the incidence of OPs in private well systems. One survey conducted in North Carolina private wells with no history of recent flooding was focused on molecular and culture-based detection of Legionella spp. and Legionella pneumophila. The other survey was a broader molecular (i.e., DNA-based) characterization of the incidence of Legionella spp., L. pneumophila, Mycobacterium spp., Mycobacterium avium (the most commonly nontuberculous mycobacteria associated with disease), and Naegleria fowleri in private wells with recent history of flooding (i.e., Hurricanes Harvey and Irma in 2017, or the Great Louisiana Floods in 2016, extending to Texas, Florida, and Louisiana). All samples in both studies were analyzed for total bacterial 16S rRNA genes, indicator bacteria (e.g., total coliform and Escherichia coli) and inorganic constituents. Information about well system characteristics were obtained through questionnaires sent to participating residents. Widespread detection of OP DNA markers were noted in the flooded well survey. Legionella spp. (detectable in 50-100% of well waters, depending on the flood event) and Mycobacterium spp. (detectable in 13.2-45.0% of well waters) were the most commonly detected among the OPs targets. At the genus level, L. pneumophila (7.9-65.5%) and M. avium (7.9-32.5%) were less commonly detected, but still highly variable. It is not possible to judge whether these OP levels were elevated as a result of the flooding because the sampling was carried out as an emergency response and background levels were not previously tested. Also of interest was whether well characteristics could predict OP levels, including well depth, well type, or treatment. However, none of these emerged as significant predictors of OP detection frequency or levels. Similarly, these OP DNA markers were not elevated in homes reporting submerged wellheads or system damage, suggesting that detection of these OPs is more dependent on the groundwater that supplies these private wells than influx of contaminated surface water. The incidence of DNA markers pertaining to N. fowleri, the "brain eating amoeba" that causes rare incidences of primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), tended to be lower (5.0-12.7%) than that of other OPs targeted, but was more frequently detected in wells reporting submerged well heads, suggesting its occurrence was related to contamination from flood water. A positive association between total bacteria and occurrence of both Legionella spp. and Mycobacterium spp., was observed in private wells of all surveyed areas, contrary to observations in municipal drinking water systems with secondary disinfectant residuals. On the other hand, Legionella reportedly has an optimal growth range of 20-42 °C in municipal systems and recent surveys of municipal systems reported a strong association between Legionella spp. and temperature that was not observed for private wells in this study. We speculate that the essentially "infinite" water age and lack of disinfectant for well water, may contribute to these differences relative to municipal water supplies. The results presented in this work are likely an overestimation of OPs numbers in private wells, as molecular detection of OPs does not distinguish between live and dead cells. In addition, sample sizes were limited by laboratory throughput and budget. Identifying key variables impacting the occurrence of OPs in private wells, given that our study shows that these pathogens are relatively common, might someday help limit the risk of infections. / Master of Science / Non-fecal pathogens that are capable of growth in drinking water systems and causing illness primarily in individuals with compromised immune systems are referred to as opportunistic pathogens (OPs). OPs of concern in drinking water systems in the United States include members of the Legionella genus (i.e., Legionella spp.) and Mycobacterium genus (i.e., Mycobacterium spp.), as well as Naegleria fowleri (also known as “the brain-eating amoeba”). Much of our knowledge surrounding OP occurrence and growth in drinking water relates to municipal drinking water systems. Under the right conditions, OPs have the ability to grow in municipal drinking water systems and in building plumbing systems despite the use of disinfectants. However, OP occurrence and growth in private wells is not well understood and it is unclear how the knowledge developed in municipal systems translates to private well systems that rarely utilize chemical disinfectants. In addition, because private wells are more susceptible to microbial contamination than municipal systems, the impact of flooding on OP occurrence is of particular concern. Two private well surveys were conducted to document the incidence of OP DNA markers and culturable OPs in private well systems. The first survey was conducted in North Carolina private wells with no history of recent flooding and focused on quantification of DNA markers for Legionella spp. and L. pneumophila, as well as culturable L. pneumophila. The second survey was conducted in flood-impacted private wells in vi Texas, Florida, and Louisiana following Hurricanes Harvey and Irma in 2017 and the Louisiana Floods of 2016, quantifying five DNA markers for OPs (Legionella spp., L. pneumophila, Mycobacterium spp., M. avium, and N. fowleri). All water samples in both studies were also analyzed for total bacterial numbers (i.e., total number of copies of a gene present in all bacteria), certain bacteria that indicate environmental and fecal contamination (e.g. total coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli), and inorganics. Information about well system characteristics was obtained through questionnaires sent to participating residents. While it was not possible to sample before the flooding events and determine the background detection rates, this survey found that detection of the target OPs in the flood-impacted wells was widespread, but highly variable. Both culture-based and DNAbased testing methods were used to verify the results because each approach has strengths and weaknesses. Detection of DNA markers indicates the genetic material of the organism being tested for is present and detects DNA of organisms that are both dead and alive. Thus, DNA detection may overestimate the presence live (and infectious) pathogens. Detection of culturable pathogens indicates the organism is alive, but only detects pathogens that readily grow on culture media. There may be other pathogens in the water that do not readily grow on the media. Thus culture may underestimate the occurrence of pathogens. DNA markers for Legionella spp. (detectable in 50-100% of well waters) and Mycobacterium spp. (detectable in 13.2-45.0% of well waters) were the most commonly vii detected among the targets in this study. The detection of DNA markers for L. pneumophila (7.9-65.5%) and M. avium (7.9-32.5%) was less common. There were no private well characteristics, such as well depth, well type, or treatment that emerged as significant predictors of these OP detection or levels. Similarly, these OPs were not elevated in recently flooded homes reporting submerged wellheads or system damage. Thus, detection of these OPs was found to be widespread and sporadic. Detection rates of N. fowleri, which causes rare incidences of primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), DNA was lower (5.0-12.7%) than other OPs, and was also not related to private well characteristics. However, N. fowleri DNA was more frequently detected in wells with wellheads that were submerged due to flooding than in wells with unsubmerged wellheads, as were total coliform bacteria (an indicator of environmental contamination) and total bacterial numbers. This demonstrates concern that submergence of wellheads during flooding is a concern for the introduction of microbial contamination in private wells. This work also explored two trends characteristic of municipal systems that were not observed in these surveys of private wells. First, positive associations between overall bacterial numbers and DNA markers for both Legionella spp. and Mycobacterium spp. were observed in private wells in all surveyed areas. This is contrary to what has been reported for overall bacterial numbers in municipal drinking water systems with a secondary disinfectant residual. Second, Legionella has been known to have an optimal growth range of 32 to 42 °C (90 to 108 °F) in municipal systems and recent surveys of municipal systems with both a free chlorine and chloramine secondary disinfectants viii showed a strong association between Legionella spp. and temperature. These associations were not observed in private wells in this work. Continuous disinfection treatment in municipal drinking water systems may eliminate certain microbes, lowering overall levels of bacteria, while OPs may persist by resisting disinfection, resulting in no correlation between total bacteria and OPs. Private wells do not generally use continuous disinfection and represent low-nutrient environments where naturally occurring OPs can grow alongside other bacteria. The results of this study are likely an overestimation of OPs infection risk associated with private wells, as infection can only be caused by live OPs, which cannot be directly determined by measuring DNA markers. In addition, sample sizes were limited by laboratory throughput and budget. Identifying key variables that impact the occurrence of OPs in private wells is necessary to minimize the risk of associated infections linked to private wells. This work provides strong preliminary evidence that OP occurrence in private wells is relatively commonplace. Science-based options for at-risk (e.g., immunocompromised) individuals to decrease their exposure to OPs in private well water need to be developed.

Opportunistic pathogens (OPs) are of special concern for immunocompromised populations and are known to grow in both drinking water and reclaimed water (i.e., non-potable recycled water) distribution systems, with aerosol inhalation and other non-ingestion exposures that are not addressed by existing regulatory frameworks. Factors enabling the growth of OPs in water distribution and premise (i.e., building) plumbing systems distributing reclaimed and other water sources systems are poorly understood especially for the emerging OP, Naegleria fowleri (i.e. brain-eating amoeba). Three phases of investigation were carried out to identify factors that facilitate the growth of OPs in main distribution and premise plumbing systems, with particular attention on reclaimed water systems, aging water mains, and private well systems. Phase one examined the role of biological treatment to remove organic carbon and disinfectant type on the occurrence of OPs during distribution of reclaimed water. Laboratory-scale simulated reclaimed water distribution systems were employed to systematically examine the effects of prior granular activated carbon (GAC) biofiltration of the water; chlorine, chloramines, or no disinfectant, and water ages ranging up to 5 days. The second and third phases of research explored the role of nitrification, iron corrosion, and disinfectant on the growth of N. fowleri both in municipal drinking water from a city grappling with aging water infrastructure and untreated private well water. Results from the simulated reclaimed water distribution systems suggested that biologically-active GAC filtration may unintentionally select for specific OPs, contrary to expectations and experiences with oligotrophic conditions in potable water systems. While GAC biofiltration was associated with lower total bacteria and Legionella spp. gene markers, there were no apparent benefits in terms of other OPs analyzed. Similarly, disinfectant treatments successful for controlling OPs in potable water were either ineffective or associated with increased levels of OPs, such as Mycobacterium spp. and Acanthamoeba spp., in the reclaimed water examined. In the potable water study, it was possible to recreate conditions associated with growth of N. fowleri in the aged main distribution system from where the water for the experiment was collected; including corroding iron mains, nitrification, and disinfectant decay. While the effects of nitrification could not be confirmed, there was a clear association of iron corrosion with N. fowleri proliferation. The role of iron was explored further in what, to the author's knowledge, was the first study of N. fowleri in private wells. Analysis of 40 wells found correlations between N. fowleri and stagnant iron levels, further supporting the hypothesis that iron corrosion or iron encourages the growth of N. fowleri, and, because wells are not routinely disinfected, not necessarily as a result of promoting disinfectant decay. As this study took place following a major flooding event, it provided insight not only into how surface water contamination may influence private well water microbial communities, but also added to the understanding that current recommendations for disinfecting private wells are inadequate and standards should be implemented to aid homeowners in the event of flooding. This exploratory research illuminated several factors influencing the OP growth in a range of water systems. Identifying key variables that control growth is crucial to improving the safety of these systems. / MS / Water borne bacteria that effect the immune systems of the sick, known as opportunistic pathogens (OPs), have become a major heath concern. These organisms are known to grow in drinking water and reclaimed water (i.e., non-potable recycled water) distribution systems yet there are no regulations aimed at prevention. There is also limited knowledge on how premise plumbing and water sources effect the growth, population, and risk of infection by OPs, especially for Naegleria fowleri (i.e. brain-eating amoeba). An investigation was carried out in three parts to determine what influences the growth of OPs in water distribution and household plumbing systems, with particular attention to reclaimed water, municipal drinking water, and private well systems. Phase one examined the role of biological treatment to remove organic carbon and disinfectant type on the occurrence of OPs during distribution of reclaimed water. Laboratory-scale simulated reclaimed water distribution systems were used to examine the effects of granular activated carbon (GAC) biofiltration of the water, disinfectants (chlorine, chloramines, or no disinfectant), and water ages ranging zero to five days. The second and third phases of research explored the role of nitrification, iron corrosion, and disinfectant on the growth of N. fowleri both in municipal drinking water from a city with aging water infrastructure and untreated private well water. Results from the simulated reclaimed water distribution systems suggested that biologically-active GAC filtration may allow for the growth of specific OPs. While GAC biofiltration was associated with lower total bacteria and Legionella spp., there were no apparent benefits in reducing the presence of other OPs. Similarly, common disinfectant treatments for preventing OPs in drinking water were either ineffective or increased viii levels of OPs, such as Mycobacterium spp. and Acanthamoeba spp., in the reclaimed water. In the drinking water study, conditions were introduced to grow N. fowleri in aged drinking water distribution systems with the additions of corroding iron, nitrification (using nitrifying bacteria), and disinfectant. While the effects of nitrification could not be confirmed, there was a clear relationship between iron corrosion and N. fowleri growth. The role of iron was explored further in what, to the author’s knowledge, was the first study of N. fowleri in private wells. Forty wells were examined and the relationships between N. fowleri and stagnant iron levels supported the hypothesis that iron corrosion or iron increases the growth of N. fowleri. As this study took place following a major flooding event, it provided data not only into how surface water contamination may influence private well water microbial communities, but also added to the understanding that current recommendations for disinfecting private wells are inadequate and standards should be implemented to aid homeowners in the event of flooding. This exploratory research highlighted several variables that may allow for the growth of OPs in a range of water systems. Identifying key variables that control growth is crucial to improving the safety of these systems.

Emerging contaminants (ECs) are chemicals such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products that have been detected in various environmental matrices, including drinking water supplies at trace concentrations (ng/L-ug/L or ng/kg-ug/kg). Current wastewater treatment plant technology is largely ineffective at removing ECs. The objectives of this investigation were to: 1) determine the occurrence of ECs in private well water supplies in Montgomery and Roanoke County, VA 2) quantify the concentrations of three ECs in selected private water supplies; 3) examine the relationship between water quality constituents (nitrate, bacteria, pH and total dissolved solids) to EC occurrence in private water supplies; and 4) determine the ability of the MicroEvapTM, a novel wastewater treatment technology, to remove ECs from secondary wastewater effluent. In partnership with the Virginia Household Water Quality Program, 57 private water supplies were sampled and tested for the occurrence of 142 ECs and 43 other water quality constituents. Up to 73 ECs were detected in the sampled private water supplies. Higher numbers of ECs detected in the tested private water supplies were related with nitrate >1 mg/L, total dissolved solids >250 mg/L, and the presence of total coliform bacteria. Results indicate the MicroEvapTM technology had >99% removal effectiveness for all 26 tested ECs from three secondary wastewater effluent. With the increasing detection of ECs in water bodies, it is essential to understand the occurrence of ECs and environmental predictors of EC presence in different water matrices and continue to develop water treatment technology capable of treating wastewater for EC removal. / Master of Science / Emerging contaminants (ECs) are compounds intended to improve human and animal well-being, and include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and human/veterinary antibiotics. ECs have been frequently detected in water resources worldwide including drinking water. The release of ECs from wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent is their primary route into the environment. The inability of most current wastewater treatment technologies to fully remove ECs necessitates further development of technology that can effectively remove ECs. Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals enter WWTPs because the human body does not fully metabolize the compound and the remainder exits in waste. Private well water is largely unregulated and often untreated and has been relatively less evaluated for EC presence in the literature. The objectives of this study were 1) determine the occurrence of ECs in private well water supplies in Montgomery and Roanoke County, VA 2) quantify the concentrations of three ECs in selected private water supplies; 3) examine the relationship between well age and depth and water quality constituents (nitrate, bacteria, pH and total dissolved solids) to EC occurrence in private water supplies; and 4) determine the ability of the MicroEvap™, a novel wastewater treatment technology, to remove ECs from secondary wastewater effluent. Emerging contaminants were detected in southwest Virginia private well water. Knowing the ECs present in private well water is necessary to allow for eventual human risk assessment of ECs for people consuming the water. The MicroEvap™ was highly effective at EC removal from wastewater with removal rates >99%. The removal of all ECs from wastewater is essential to ensure purified WWTP effluent. The continued detection of ECs and the unknown human health risks from these contaminants in drinking water means ECs are a significant pollution concern that requires continued assessment.