Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an essential process in wastewater treatment to stabilize waste organic solids and produce biogas. This research is comprised of two projects in the discipline of anaerobic digestion. First, the effect of high sulfate concentration on anaerobic digestion of wastewater sludge was investigated. Secondly, the performance of acetoclastic methanogens Methanosaeta spp. and Methanosarcina spp. were investigated under intensified AD operation conditions (i.e., elevated acetate concentrations, vigorous mixing, etc.). In the sulfate experiments, the cumulative biogas and methane production decreased linearly with increasing initial sulfate doses (0 – 3,300 mg S L-1) and the correlation between the sulfate dose and methane production was verified with theoretical predictions, indicating complete reduction of sulfate to sulfide in AD. The examined sulfate concentrations resulted in no clear negative effects on the COD (chemical oxygen demand) removal or VSS (volatile suspended solids) destruction of the wastewater sludge, indicating that previous findings on sulfide toxicity might have been attributed to potential COD overestimation of digested sludge with high levels of sulfide. To avoid potential misinterpretation of AD performance on sulfide toxicity effects, we proposed a new method for COD correction for digested sludge. In the second project focused on acetoclastic methanogens, vigorous mixing conditions substantially decreased Methanosarcina spp. growth and methane production, and the decreased methanogenesis was more pronounced at higher acetate concentrations. Methanosarcina spp. prefer to grow in clusters and the vigorous mixing can disrupt cluster formation; as a result, reduced chances for cluster formation limited the growth of Methanosarcina spp.. While Methanosarcina spp. growth and methane production increased with the increasing acetate concentration, Methanosaeta spp. growth was unaffected by the examined vigorous mixing and soluble substrate conditions with negligible relative growth. Thus, rapid enrichment of Methanosarcina spp. is critical for successful operation intensified of AD processes under high organic loading conditions. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

[ES] El actual enfoque hacia la desfosilización de la industria química acentúa la necesidad de desarrollar procesos químicos medioambientalmente más sostenibles. El diseño de sistemas catalíticos en tándem para llevar a cabo reacciones mecanísticamente desacopladas en un solo reactor, representa una estrategia prometedora para potencialmente reducir el tamaño de las instalaciones y alcanzar mayores eficiencias energéticas y económicas. El gas de síntesis y sus derivados directos C1 (metanol, DME) representan una atractiva fuente de carbono no derivada del petróleo para la producción de productos químicos. La propagación selectiva de cadena desde compuestos C1 hasta específicamente productos sigue siendo un desafío importante en el campo de la catálisis heterogénea. En esta tesis, se presenta cómo el diseño racional de un sistema catalítico en tándem, multifuncional y heterogéneo, proporciona una ruta novedosa y alternativa para la síntesis directa de productos C3 de interés a partir de compuestos C1. En este trabajo, se ha estudiado la integración en tándem de la reacción de carbonilación de compuestos metoxi (DME) con CO, con la posterior cetonización de los productos carboxílicos C2 intermedios correspondientes en un sistema catalítico multifuncional. La integración de los catalizadores Ag/MOR y Pd/ZrCeOx respectivamente, permite la síntesis directa de acetona a partir de mezclas de DME/gas de síntesis a 548 K y 20 bares. La incorporación de H-FER nanocristalina en un catalizador multifuncional metal/óxido/zeolita Pd/ZrCeOx:FER, como funcionalidad específica de hidrólisis del acetato de metilo, ha permitido la obtención de rendimientos a acetona hasta tres veces mayores en comparación con los obtenidos utilizando solamente el catalizador metal/óxido. La funcionalidad específica de hidrólisis se ha incorporado en base a los resultados de estudios cinéticos realizados para las etapas de reacción por separado, que revelan una limitación general de la velocidad de cetonización a partir del paso de hidrólisis ácida del intermedio acetato de metilo. A una distancia intercatalítica en el rango de micrómetros, se ha mantenido una conversión de DME estable (superior al 94%), junto con una selectividad de acetona del 65-70% (entre los productos orgánicos) durante al menos 10 días de operación continua. Además, la atmósfera de gas de síntesis a alta presión permite la integración de la hidrogenación de grupos carbonilo, abriendo la puerta para la producción de 2-propanol en un solo reactor. En particular, la incorporación del catalizador de hidrogenación Ag-Pt/¿-Al2O3 ha permitido alcanzar una selectividad de 2-propanol del 51% dentro de la fracción de productos C3. Finalmente, el concepto de conversión en tándem mencionado anteriormente se ha extendido a la conversión directa de mezclas de DME/gas de síntesis a propileno. Con este fin, se han desarrollado catalizadores basados en Ag/SiO2 como una funcionalidad de hidrodeshidratación de acetona y se han acoplado al sistema catalítico multifuncional en tándem desarrollado para la producción de acetona. A una temperatura de reacción en el rango de 548-578 K y una presión total de 15 bares, el sistema catalítico en tándem proporciona ratios propileno-a-etileno en el rango 6-9, y selectividades de propileno de hasta el 40%, para una conversión de DME >97%, demostrando que esta ruta de producción es intrínsecamente más selectiva hacia propileno que la mayoría de los procesos de metanol-a-propileno reportados. Además, la temperatura de reacción relativamente suave y el carácter reductor de la atmósfera de gas de síntesis inhiben la deposición de coque, proporcionando un comportamiento estable durante períodos de operación superiores a 214 horas. Aunque se requiere mayor optimización en cuanto al rendimiento a propileno, los resultados abren la puerta a un nuevo proceso para la producción de propileno a partir de materias primas C1, alternativo a los procesos de metanol-a-hidrocarburos. / [CA] L'actual enfocament cap a la desfossilització de la indústria química accentua la necessitat de desenvolupar processos químics mediambientalment més sostenibles. En aquest context, el disseny de sistemes catalítics en tàndem per a dur a terme reaccions mecanísticamente desacoblades en un sol reactor, representa una estratègia prometedora per potencialment reduir la grandària de les instal·lacions i aconseguir majors eficiències energètiques i econòmiques. El gas de síntesi i els seus derivats directes C1 (metanol, DME) representen una atractiva font de carboni no derivada del petroli. La propagació selectiva de cadena des de compostos C1 fins específicament productes C3 continua sent un desafiament important en el camp de la catàlisi heterogènia. En aquesta tesi, es presenta com el disseny racional d'un sistema catalític en tàndem, multifuncional i heterogeni, proporciona una ruta nova i alternativa per a la síntesi directa de productes C3 d'interés a partir de compostos C1. En aquest treball, s'ha estudiat la integració en tàndem de la reacció de carbonilació de compostos metoxi (DME) amb CO, amb la posterior cetonització dels productes carboxílics C2 intermedis corresponents en un sistema catalític multifuncional. La integració dels catalitzadors Ag/MOR i Pd/ZrCeOx respectivament, permet la síntesi directa d'acetona a partir de mescles de DME/gas de síntesi a 548 K i 20 bars. La incorporació d'H-FER nanocristalina en un catalitzador multifuncional metall/òxid/zeolita Pd/ZrCeOx:FER, com a funcionalitat específica d'hidròlisi de l'acetat de metil, intermedi en el procés global, ha permés l'obtenció de rendiments a acetona fins a tres vegades majors en comparació amb els obtinguts utilitzant solament el catalitzador metall/òxid, Pd/ZrCeOx. La funcionalitat específica d'hidròlisi s'ha incorporat sobre la base dels resultats d'estudis cinètics realitzats per a les etapes de reacció per separat, que revelen una limitació general de la velocitat de cetonització a partir del pas d'hidròlisi àcida de l'intermediari acetat de metil. A una distància intercatalítica en el rang de micròmetres, s'ha mantingut una conversió de DME estable (superior al 94%), juntament amb una selectivitat d'acetona del 65-70% (entre tots els productes orgànics) durant almenys 10 dies d'operació contínua. A més, l'atmosfera de gas de síntesi a alta pressió permet la integració de la hidrogenació de grups carbonil, obrint la porta per a la producció no sols d'acetona, sinó també de 2-propanol en un sol reactor. En particular, la incorporació del catalitzador d'hidrogenació Ag-Pt/¿-Al2O3 ha permés aconseguir una selectivitat de 2-propanol del 51% dins de la fracció de productes C3 (és a dir, acetona, 2-propanol, propà i propilé). Finalment, el concepte de conversió en tàndem esmentat anteriorment s'ha estés a la conversió directa de mescles de DME/gas de síntesi a propilé. A aquest efecte, s'han desenvolupat catalitzadors basats en Ag/SiO2 com una funcionalitat de hidro-deshidratació d'acetona i s'han acoblat al sistema catalític multifuncional en tàndem desenvolupat per a la producció d'acetona. A una temperatura de reacció en el rang de 548-578 K i una pressió total de 15 bars, el sistema catalític multifuncional en tàndem proporciona ràtios propilé-a-etilé en el rang 6-9, i selectivitats de propilé de fins al 40%, per a una conversió de DME >97%, demostrant que aquesta ruta de producció és intrínsecament més selectiva cap a propilé que la majoria dels processos de metanol-a-propilé reportats. A més, la temperatura de reacció relativament suau i el caràcter reductor de l'atmosfera de gas de síntesi inhibixen la deposició de coc, proporcionant un comportament estable durant períodes d'operació superiors a 214 hores. Encara que es requereix una major optimització quant al rendiment a propilé, els resultats obrin la porta a un nou procés per a la producció de propilé a partir de matèries primeres C1, alternatiu als processos de metanol-a-hidrocarburs. / [EN] The present focus on advancing towards a defossilized chemical industry underscores the need for developing more environmentally sustainable chemical processes. In this context, the design of tandem-catalytic systems to steer mechanistically decoupled reactions in a cascade fashion, in a single reactor, represents a promising strategy for potentially reduce the installed size of chemical processes and attain higher energy- and cost-efficiencies. Synthesis gas and its direct C1 derivatives (methanol, DME), represent an attractive non-petroleum derived carbon source for the production of commodity chemicals. The selective chain propagation from C1 building blocks to specifically C3 compounds has been demonstrated through biocatalytic routes, however it remains an important challenge for heterogeneous catalysis. In this thesis, we report how the design and engineering of a multifunctional, heterogeneous tandem-catalytic system provides a novel and alternative route for the direct synthesis of C3 compounds from C1 building blocks. The selective obtention of C2+ products with specific chain lengths, surpassing the inherently non-selective C-C chain propagation characteristic of Fischer-Tropsch polymerization reactions, poses a significant challenge. In this work, the tandem integration of the reaction of carbonylation of methoxy compounds (DME) with CO, with subsequent ketonisation of the corresponding C2 carboxylic intermediate products on a multifunctional catalytic system is reported. The integration of an optimized Ag/MOR and Pd/ZrCeOx catalysts, respectively, allows the direct synthesis of acetone from DME/syngas mixtures at 548 K and 20 bar. Enhanced acetone time-yields, i.e. by a factor greater than three, have been obtained by incorporation of nanosized H-FER, as a specific ester hydrolysis functionality in a Pd/ZrCeOx:FER metal/oxide/zeolite multifunctional ketonisation composite catalyst. The specific hydrolysis functionality was implemented based on insights from kinetic studies on the individual reaction steps revealing overall ketonisation rate limitation from the methyl acetate intermediate acid-catalysed hydrolysis step. At the micro-meter range carbonylation/ketonisation intercatalysts spacing, a noticeably stable DME conversion (of >94%), alongside ca. 65-70% acetone selectivity (within all organic products) has been sustained for at least 10 days on-stream. Furthermore, the high-pressure syngas atmosphere allows integrating the hydrogenation of carbonyl groups therefore opening the door for the production of not only acetone but also 2-propanol in a single reactor. Particularly, Ag-Pt/¿-Al2O3 hydrogenation catalyst afforded reaching a 2-propanol selectivity of 51% within the C3 products fraction (i.e. acetone, 2-propanol, propane and propylene). Finally, the above tandem conversion concept has been extended to the direct conversion of DME/syngas mixtures to propylene. To this end, Ag/SiO2 catalysts have been developed as an acetone hydrodehydration functionality and coupled to the multifunctional catalytic-tandem system developed for acetone production from DME/syngas mixtures. At a reaction temperature in the range of 548-578 K and a total pressure of 15 bar, the multifunctional catalytic system affords a remarkably high propylene-to-ethylene molar ratio of 6-9 and overall propylene selectivities up to 40%, at essentially full DME conversion (>97%), proving this production route intrinsically more selective to propylene than most of methanol-to-propylene processes. Moreover, the comparatively mild reaction temperature and the reducing character of the syngas atmosphere inhibit coke deposition, leading to stable performance for times-on-stream in excess of 214 hours. While future improvements in propylene time-yield will be required, the results open the door to a new process for propylene production from C1 feedstocks, alternative to methanol-to-hydrocarbons processes. / I would like to thank the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (MCIU) for my FPU fellowship (FPU17/04751) and the European Research Council (ERC) under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (ERC-CoG- TANDEng; grant agreement 864195), which have made possible the realization of this thesis. BASF SE (Ludwigshafen, Germany) is gratefully acknowledged for their support to fundamental research efforts in catalysis, a portion of which has contributed to the outcomes presented in this PhD thesis. I would also like to thank the Spanish Research Council (CSIC) and, particularly, the Institute of Chemical Technology (ITQ), for providing the infrastructure where I have developed my PhD work. Next, I want to thank the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for giving me access to their facilities during my short PhD research stay, and to the ALBA synchrotron, especially to the CLÆSS beamline, for the several beamtimes granted. Finally, I would like to thank the department of Chemical and Nuclear Engineering (DIQN) of the Polytechnic University of Valencia (UPV), for hosting me as a teaching assistant over these years / Andrés Marcos, E. (2024). Tandem Catalysis for Selective C1-to-C3 Chain Propagations towards Platform Chemicals Production [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/204891

As características inovadoras dos microreatores permitem a produção de novos materiais. O presente trabalho analisa o comportamento do milirreator ASIA da Syrris para a polimerização de estireno em solução. Realizaram-se polimerizações á 100 °C e 115 °C, usando peróxido de benzoíla como iniciador e tolueno como solvente. Testaram-se diferentes razões monômero solvente e diferentes quantidades de iniciador, além de variar o tempo de residência entre 5 e 80 minutos. As variações dos parâmetros envolvidos nesse milirreator proporcionou conversões de 9% até quase 70%, com pesos moleculares numéricos entre 6,000 e 50,000 g/mol. Não houve entupimento no reator, permitindo a aplicação de condições mais agressivas e melhor controladas. Fez-se uma primeira tentativa de modelagem, usando o modelo do PFR e, em seguida, da dispersão axial. Usou-se o método dos momentos para computar as médias da distribuição do peso molecular. As simulações forneceram uma razoável previsão da conversão e do peso molecular médio para os experimentos mais diluídos, mas se distanciaram para os casos com maior concentração de monômero e com maior polidispersão, sendo isso provavelmente resultado do desvio do comportamento de fluxo em pistão. Portanto, o milirreator ASIA é capaz de controlar bem as reações de polimerização, (proporcionando baixos valores do índice de polidispersão), além de fornecer valores satisfatórios de conversão (tendo em conta do seu pequeno tamanho). O sucesso no controle das polimerizações pode certamente permitir o scale-up de um reator com tais características, de forma a empregá-lo para produtividades maiores de polímeros com boa qualidade. / The innovative characteristics of microreactors allow producing new materials. The present work analyses the behavior of the Syrris ASIA millireactor for the solution polymerization of styrene. The polymerizations were carried out at 100 °C and 115 °C, using benzoyl peroxide as initiator and toluene as solvent. Different monomer to solvent ratios and initiator quantities have been tested, besides varying the residence time from 5 to 80 minutes. The variations of the parameters involved in this millireactor gave conversions from 9% to almost 70%, with numerical molecular weights ranging from 6,000 to 50,000 g/mol. No plugging happened, opening the possibility of more aggressive and well controlled applications. A first attempt of modeling was made, using the PFR model and the dispersion model. The method of moments was adopted to compute the means of the molecular weight distribution. The simulations gave a good prediction of conversion and average molecular weight for the more diluted experiments, but partially deviated for higher monomer contents with larger polydispersities, meaning a larger discrepancy from plug flow for the millireactor. In general, the millireactor ASIA can be concluded to control polymerization reactions well (giving low polydispersity index values), besides giving satisfactory conversion values (considering its small size). Succeeding in controlling polymerizations can provide a reactor with characteristics of being scaled up and employed in greater productivities, ensuring good polymer qualities.

L’oxydation catalytique du propylène en acroléine en phase gazeuse est un procédé complexe et fortement exothermique, faisant intervenir de nombreuses réactions consécutives et compétitives. Une des clés pour maximiser le rendement en acroléine est le contrôle rigoureux de la température du mélange réactionnel ; il s’agit de lever les limitations aux transferts thermiques, afin d’évacuer l’importante chaleur de réaction. Un échangeur-réacteur milli-structuré a ainsi été retenu pour intensifier le procédé. En effet, de par la taille millimétrique de ses canaux ainsi que le choix d’un dépôt du catalyseur industriel sur les parois internes de ceux-ci, les transferts de chaleur et de matière sont améliorés. Afin de réaliser ce dimensionnement, une étude préliminaire de la cinétique des réactions a été réalisée et un modèle cinétique a été déterminé. Ce dernier a été utilisé afin de dégager les conditions optimales de fonctionnement d’un canal réactif (température, nombre de canaux composition), et afin d’extrapoler ces conditions sur un agencement structuré des canaux réactifs. La forme des chambres de distribution et de collecte du réacteur-échangeur ainsi que sa structure ont été déterminées et optimisées afin d’atteindre un rendement élevé par un contrôle optimal de la température, de minimiser la maldistribution des fluides et d’assurer la sécurité du procédé. Ce réacteur-échangeur intensifié, à la géométrie complexe, a finalement été fabriqué par impression 3D, au sein du projet français FAIR (Fabrication Additive pour l’Intensification des Réacteurs) / The catalytic oxidation of propylene to acrolein is a complex and highly exothermic process carried out in the gas phase, involving consecutive and competitive reactions. To maximize the efficiency of this process, the temperature needs to be rigorously controlled and the thermal transfers must be maximized, in order to evacuate the heat released by the reactions. A millistructured reactor-exchanger has thus been chosen to intensify this process. Indeed, millimetric channels washcoated with an industrial catalyst provide intensified heat and mass transfer. To carry out this design, a preliminary study of the kinetics of these reactions was carried out and a kinetic model was determined. This model was then used to identify the optimal operating conditions of a single reactive channel (temperature, number of channels, composition), and to extrapolate these conditions for the design of an intensified reactor exchanger. The shape of the distribution and collect chambers of these reactive channels were then optimized to minimize maldistribution, maximize the acrolein yield with an optimal control of the temperature, and to ensure the safety of the process. This intensified reactor-exchanger with complex geometry was finally manufactured by 3D printing, within the French project FAIR (Additive Manufacturing for the Intensification of Reactors)

A intensificação de processos é importante na busca de equipamentos e reações menos nocivos e seguros, um exemplo é a aplicação de microrreatores. A indústria farmacêutica é a maior beneficiária dessa tecnologia, pois os microrreatores, dispositivos com microcanais de até 100 µm, podem reduzir em anos o tempo necessário para desenvolver e produzir um novo fármaco e podem ser montados em unidades industriais extremamente pequenas e compactas. O aumento de casos de diabetes no Brasil na última década vem incentivando a busca por novos fármacos. Neste trabalho, a aplicação de microrreatores capilares é estudada na síntese do (Z)-5-(4-hidroxi-3-metoxibenzilideno)2,4-tiazolidinadiona (HMTZD) e do (Z)-5-(3-hidroxi-4-metoxibenzilideno)2,4-tiazolidinadiona (MHTZD), obtidos da reação de 2,4-tiazolidinediona (TZD) com 4-hidroxi-3-metoxibenzaldeído (Vanilina) e com seu isômero, 3-hidroxi-4-metoxibenzaldeído (Isovanilina), que podem ser utilizados na síntese de moléculas com atividade biológica. Foram obtidos rendimentos máximos do produto HMTZD, 98% em 480 min de reação e do produto MHTZD, 73% em 120 min de reação, contrariando a literatura que apresenta um tempo de reação para essa síntese de 20 h a 40 h. Na síntese em fluxo no microrreator, ficou evidente que quanto maior a temperatura maior a conversão de TZD e o rendimento do produto, chegando a valores de 100%, para a temperatura de 160°C em etanol. A produção no processo batelada e no microrreator foram calculadas e, quando comparadas, mostraram que apenas dois microrreatores de 1 mL em sua melhor condição de operação são capazes de produzir três vezes mais que um reator batelada de 60 mL. Pelo estudo de cinética, a reação utilizando etanol não favorece a formação de reações em paralelo ou em série. As análises qualitativas comprovaram que os produtos esperados foram formados e com alto grau de pureza. / The process intensification is important in the search for less harmful and safe equipment and reactions, an example is the application of microreactors. The pharmaceutical industry is the largest beneficiary of this technology because microreactors, devices with microchannels up to 100 µm, can reduce the time required to develop and produce a new drug in years and can be mounted in extremely small and compact industrial units. The increase in diabetes cases in Brazil in the last decade has been encouraging the search for new drugs. In this work, the application of capillary microreactors is studied in the synthesis of (Z)-5-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylidene)2,4-thiazolidinedione (HMTZD) and (Z)-5-(3-hydroxy-4- methoxybenzylidene)2,4-thiazolidinedione (MHTZD), obtained from the reaction of 2,4-thiazolidinedione (TZD) with 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (Vanillin) and its isomer, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (Isovanillin), which can be used in the synthesis of molecules with biological activity. Maximum yields of 98% in 480 min, for the product HMTZD, and 73% in 120 min, for the product MHTZD, were obtained, contradicting literature that shows a reaction time for this synthesis of 20 h to 40 h. In the flow synthesis in the microreactor, it was evident that the higher the temperature the higher the conversion of TZD and the yield of the product, reaching 100%, in ethanol working with the temperature of 160°C. The production in the batch process and the microreactor were calculated and, when compared, showed that only two 1 mL microreactors in their best operating condition are able to produce three times more than a 60 mL batch reactor. By the study of kinetics, the reaction using ethanol does not favor the formation of reactions in parallel or in series. The qualitative analyzes showed that the expected products was formed and with a high degree of purity.

A intensificação de processos é importante na busca de equipamentos e reações menos nocivos e seguros, um exemplo é a aplicação de microrreatores. A indústria farmacêutica é a maior beneficiária dessa tecnologia, pois os microrreatores, dispositivos com microcanais de até 100 µm, podem reduzir em anos o tempo necessário para desenvolver e produzir um novo fármaco e podem ser montados em unidades industriais extremamente pequenas e compactas. O aumento de casos de diabetes no Brasil na última década vem incentivando a busca por novos fármacos. Neste trabalho, a aplicação de microrreatores capilares é estudada na síntese do (Z)-5-(4-hidroxi-3-metoxibenzilideno)2,4-tiazolidinadiona (HMTZD) e do (Z)-5-(3-hidroxi-4-metoxibenzilideno)2,4-tiazolidinadiona (MHTZD), obtidos da reação de 2,4-tiazolidinediona (TZD) com 4-hidroxi-3-metoxibenzaldeído (Vanilina) e com seu isômero, 3-hidroxi-4-metoxibenzaldeído (Isovanilina), que podem ser utilizados na síntese de moléculas com atividade biológica. Foram obtidos rendimentos máximos do produto HMTZD, 98% em 480 min de reação e do produto MHTZD, 73% em 120 min de reação, contrariando a literatura que apresenta um tempo de reação para essa síntese de 20 h a 40 h. Na síntese em fluxo no microrreator, ficou evidente que quanto maior a temperatura maior a conversão de TZD e o rendimento do produto, chegando a valores de 100%, para a temperatura de 160°C em etanol. A produção no processo batelada e no microrreator foram calculadas e, quando comparadas, mostraram que apenas dois microrreatores de 1 mL em sua melhor condição de operação são capazes de produzir três vezes mais que um reator batelada de 60 mL. Pelo estudo de cinética, a reação utilizando etanol não favorece a formação de reações em paralelo ou em série. As análises qualitativas comprovaram que os produtos esperados foram formados e com alto grau de pureza. / The process intensification is important in the search for less harmful and safe equipment and reactions, an example is the application of microreactors. The pharmaceutical industry is the largest beneficiary of this technology because microreactors, devices with microchannels up to 100 µm, can reduce the time required to develop and produce a new drug in years and can be mounted in extremely small and compact industrial units. The increase in diabetes cases in Brazil in the last decade has been encouraging the search for new drugs. In this work, the application of capillary microreactors is studied in the synthesis of (Z)-5-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzylidene)2,4-thiazolidinedione (HMTZD) and (Z)-5-(3-hydroxy-4- methoxybenzylidene)2,4-thiazolidinedione (MHTZD), obtained from the reaction of 2,4-thiazolidinedione (TZD) with 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (Vanillin) and its isomer, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde (Isovanillin), which can be used in the synthesis of molecules with biological activity. Maximum yields of 98% in 480 min, for the product HMTZD, and 73% in 120 min, for the product MHTZD, were obtained, contradicting literature that shows a reaction time for this synthesis of 20 h to 40 h. In the flow synthesis in the microreactor, it was evident that the higher the temperature the higher the conversion of TZD and the yield of the product, reaching 100%, in ethanol working with the temperature of 160°C. The production in the batch process and the microreactor were calculated and, when compared, showed that only two 1 mL microreactors in their best operating condition are able to produce three times more than a 60 mL batch reactor. By the study of kinetics, the reaction using ethanol does not favor the formation of reactions in parallel or in series. The qualitative analyzes showed that the expected products was formed and with a high degree of purity.

Biosurfactants are naturally occurring surface active compounds with unique properties such as biodegradability, low toxicity and tolerance to extreme conditions. These unique properties promote their use as alternatives to traditional petrochemical and oleochemical surfactants, as they satisfy requirements for environmentally friendly manufacturing processes. However, the cost of biosurfactants is still significantly higher than chemical surfactants which hinders their large-scale commercialisation. This work presents an investigation into the production of surfactin, a lipopeptide biosurfactant, exploiting its foamability characteristics for the design and implementation of a recirculating continuous foam fractionation column operated in parallel with a bioreactor. Surfactin is a powerful amphiphilic compound produced by Bacillus subtilis. It is a plant-elicitor with antimicrobial properties offering a huge potential in the food and agricultural industries. However, surfactin has extreme foamability even at low concentrations. This foamability can lead to production problems such as large volumes of uncontrolled overflowing foam with significant product and biomass losses. Here, it is demonstrated that this overflow can be controlled, or eliminated, by integrating a foam fractionation system to the bioreactor in a recirculating loop. A dual production and separation process was engineered and enabled reaching high surfactin productivity in a controlled manner. After elucidating the surface properties of surfactin-rich broth, a foam fractionation column was designed for bench-scale production. Operation of the recirculating column in parallel with the bioreactor enabled air flow to be independently controlled for each unit. Surfactin solutions of various concentrations were tested to relate foamability to concentration over a range of bubble sizes. The sintered glass pore size was revealed to be the main factor influencing the enrichment, with a positive correlation with increasing pore size. Characterisation of the fermentation production rate enabled fractionation column air flow rate to be controlled to ensure sufficient foam surface area for product adsorption. The airflow rate was identified as the main factor impacting on the surfactin recovery rate. This characterisation enabled broth feed flow rate to be controlled to balance the removal rate with the production rate. Two processes were created coupling the newly designed fractionation column with the bioreactor operated either in aerated or non-aerated conditions. Under aerated settings, controlled surfactin production was successfully achieved at a productivity of 0.0019 g L-1 h-1 whilst simultaneously recovering 91% of the product at a maximum enrichment of 79 and 116 through the column and overflow routes, respectively. Under non-aerated settings, overflowing foam was fully avoided and 90% of the product was recovered solely through the fractionation column at an enrichment ratio of 40 under non-optimised settings. Additionally, up to 14% (g/g) increase in surfactin production was observed with the coupling of the fractionation column demonstrating a further benefit as a bioprocess intensifying device for surfactin production. This work provides a benchmark for a robust system for surfactin production, substantially improving the productivity at bench scale, potentially leading the way to more productive and less costly industrial processes for surface active compounds in a wide range of industrials fields.

As características inovadoras dos microreatores permitem a produção de novos materiais. O presente trabalho analisa o comportamento do milirreator ASIA da Syrris para a polimerização de estireno em solução. Realizaram-se polimerizações á 100 °C e 115 °C, usando peróxido de benzoíla como iniciador e tolueno como solvente. Testaram-se diferentes razões monômero solvente e diferentes quantidades de iniciador, além de variar o tempo de residência entre 5 e 80 minutos. As variações dos parâmetros envolvidos nesse milirreator proporcionou conversões de 9% até quase 70%, com pesos moleculares numéricos entre 6,000 e 50,000 g/mol. Não houve entupimento no reator, permitindo a aplicação de condições mais agressivas e melhor controladas. Fez-se uma primeira tentativa de modelagem, usando o modelo do PFR e, em seguida, da dispersão axial. Usou-se o método dos momentos para computar as médias da distribuição do peso molecular. As simulações forneceram uma razoável previsão da conversão e do peso molecular médio para os experimentos mais diluídos, mas se distanciaram para os casos com maior concentração de monômero e com maior polidispersão, sendo isso provavelmente resultado do desvio do comportamento de fluxo em pistão. Portanto, o milirreator ASIA é capaz de controlar bem as reações de polimerização, (proporcionando baixos valores do índice de polidispersão), além de fornecer valores satisfatórios de conversão (tendo em conta do seu pequeno tamanho). O sucesso no controle das polimerizações pode certamente permitir o scale-up de um reator com tais características, de forma a empregá-lo para produtividades maiores de polímeros com boa qualidade. / The innovative characteristics of microreactors allow producing new materials. The present work analyses the behavior of the Syrris ASIA millireactor for the solution polymerization of styrene. The polymerizations were carried out at 100 °C and 115 °C, using benzoyl peroxide as initiator and toluene as solvent. Different monomer to solvent ratios and initiator quantities have been tested, besides varying the residence time from 5 to 80 minutes. The variations of the parameters involved in this millireactor gave conversions from 9% to almost 70%, with numerical molecular weights ranging from 6,000 to 50,000 g/mol. No plugging happened, opening the possibility of more aggressive and well controlled applications. A first attempt of modeling was made, using the PFR model and the dispersion model. The method of moments was adopted to compute the means of the molecular weight distribution. The simulations gave a good prediction of conversion and average molecular weight for the more diluted experiments, but partially deviated for higher monomer contents with larger polydispersities, meaning a larger discrepancy from plug flow for the millireactor. In general, the millireactor ASIA can be concluded to control polymerization reactions well (giving low polydispersity index values), besides giving satisfactory conversion values (considering its small size). Succeeding in controlling polymerizations can provide a reactor with characteristics of being scaled up and employed in greater productivities, ensuring good polymer qualities.

The present work aimed at designing a thermally efficient microreactor system coupling methanol steam reforming with methanol combustion for autothermal hydrogen production. A preliminary study was performed by analyzing three prototype reactor configurations to identify the optimal radial distribution pattern upon enhancing the reactor self-insulation. The annular heat integration pattern of Architecture C showed superior performance in providing efficient heat retention to the system with a 50 - 150 degrees C decrease in maximum external-surface temperature. Detailed work was performed using Architecture C configuration to optimize the catalyst placement in the microreactor network, and optimize reforming and combustion flows, using no third coolant line. The optimized combustion and reforming catalyst configuration prevented the hot-spot migration from the reactor midpoint and enabled stable reactor operation at all process flowrates studied. Best results were obtained at high reforming flowrates (1800 sccm) with an increase in combustion flowrate (300 sccm) with the net H2 yield of 53% and thermal efficiency of >80% from methanol with minimal insulation to the heatintegrated microchannel network. The use of the third bank of channels for recuperative heat exchange by four different reactor configurations was explored to further enhance the reactor performance; the maximum overall hydrogen yield was increased to 58% by preheating the reforming stream in the outer 16 heat retention channels. An initial 3-D COMSOL model of the 25-channeled heat-exchanger microreactor was developed to predict the reactor hotspot shape, location, optimum process flowrates and substrate thermal conductivity. This study indicated that low thermal conductivity materials (e.g. ceramics, glass) provides enhanced efficiencies than high conductivity materials (e.g. silicon, stainless steel), by maintaining substantial thermal gradients in the system through minimization of axial heat conduction. Final summary of the study included the determination of system energy density; a gravimetric energy density of 169.34 Wh/kg and a volumetric energy density of 506.02 Wh/l were achieved from brass architectures for 10 hrs operation, which is higher than the energy density of Li-Ion batteries (120 Wh/kg and 350 Wh/l). Overall, this research successfully established the optimal process flowrates and reactor design to enhance the potential of a thermally-efficient heat-exchanger microchannel network for autothermal hydrogen production in portable applications.

Process intensification tools, such as the capillary reactor, offer several benefits to the chemical process industries due to the well-defined high specific interfacial area available for heat and mass transfer, which increases the transfer rates, and due to low inventories, they also enhance the safety of the process. This has provided motivation to investigate three such tools, namely the capillary microreactor, spinning disc and rotating tube reactors, in this study. / The gas-liquid slug flow capillary microreactor intensifies reactor performance through internal circulation caused by the shear between the continuous phase/wall surface and the slug axis, which enhances the diffusivity and consequently increases the reaction rates. However, integrating the complex hydrodynamics of this reactor with its chemical kinetics is a mathematically challenging task. Therefore, in this study, a simple-to-complex approach, using a set of state-of-the-art computational fluid dynamic tools, has been used. Firstly, simulations were performed without any chemical reaction to ascertain the extent of slug flow regime. The model also clearly captured the slug flow generation mechanism which can be used to structurally optimize the angle of entry in these reactors. Finally, the hydrodynamic model was also capable of estimating the pressure drop and slug lengths. After successfully simulating the hydrodynamics of the system, a reaction model was incorporated to study the chemical reaction kinetics. The results were compared with the published experimental work and were found to be in good agreement. / The spinning disc reactor utilizes the centrifugal and shear forces to generate thin liquid films characterized with intense interfering waves. This enables a very high heat transfer coefficients to be realized between the disc and liquid, as well as very high mass transfer between the liquid and the bulk gas phase. The waves formed also produce an intense local mixing with very little back mixing. This makes a spinning disc reactor an ideal contactor for multiphase processes. The focus of this study has been to elucidate the hydrodynamic behaviour of the liquid film flow over the horizontal spinning disc. Investigations were also performed to elaborate the local and overall hydrodynamic characteristics of a fully developed spinning disc reactor. Simulation results showed a continuous linear liquid film on the horizontal spinning disc and intense mixing performance in the annulus of the reactor around the disc surface. Finally, the film thickness data from the simulations were compared with the limited amount of data available for this novel process. / Rotating tube reactor also uses centrifugal forces to generate the liquid film and a high degree of mixing along with an improved control over the reactant retention times. In this work we have conducted a CFD analysis to understand the hydrodynamics of this new technology for future developments.