Mining has been the biggest contributor to GDP after government services since the earliest discoveries of minerals in Namibia. The mining industry has played a significant role in the social and economic development of Namibia since independence in 1990. After Namibia gained independence in 1990, the country undertook to develop enabling mining laws to govern its mining industry. Namibia’s mining industry developed relatively early, based mostly on diamonds that were discovered at the turn of the century. The country is well known for its rich biodiversity and plentiful mineral reserves. The country’s economic growth is largely dependent on the mining sector such as the exploration and processing of mineral resources for export purposes to sustain its economy. The need to establish mining laws was derived from the fact that the country’s economy relies heavily on mineral resources for national wealth. The mining industry is governed by among other laws, the Namibian Constitution, the Minerals Prospecting and Mining Act 33 of 1999, the Diamond Act 13 of 1999 and the Minerals Development Fund of Namibia, Act 19 of 1996. Additionally to the enabling legislation, in 2003, the Namibian government unveiled its minerals policy with the aim to supplement the available mining laws. The enactment of the minerals policy was aimed at boosting the potential of the mining industry of the country. The main Act which governs the mining sector in Namibia has failed to incorporate in itself laws to govern mining in protected areas. Premised on this omission, the National Policy on Prospecting and Mining in Protected Areas (NPPMPA) was born. The purpose of the NPPMPA is to regulate mining actives in protected areas. This study argues that a policy has no legal power to compel compliance with its provisions as opposed to the rule of law. The study recommends that a mature and modern legislative regime for the mining sector (in particular mining in protected areas) to provide a clear line of responsibility and accountability for both the government and mining companies is required. The government should therefore look at incorporating most of the guidelines under the NPPMPA into law to enable the government to achieve the desired environmental protection and maintenance of the ecosystem. / Mini Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Public Law / LLM / Unrestricted

This study evaluates the utility of stakeholder analysis for understanding the relationships among actors involved in creating a marine protected area (MPA) in the Southern Ocean. It relies on the Australian Centre of Excellence on Risk Analysis (ACERA) method of critical stakeholder analysis, a concise, step-by-step model to identify stakeholders, assess their perceptions and values, and reveal power relations. The study uses the first two steps of the ACERA method to analyze stakeholders—in this case individuals speaking on behalf of organizations—within the Australian delegation of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) concerning the establishment of an MPA in the Southern Ocean. The study reveals both benefits and weaknesses in the ACERA method. It also portrays conflicting views among these stakeholders, and that the process of identifying and analyzing stakeholder interests is highly complex and dynamic. / Master of Science

Land-use change that took place in the second half of the 20th century affected population sizes and viabilities of many species adapted to extensive land use. Dusky and Scarce large blue butterflies are ones of these species. Both number of their populations and population sizes declined all over Europe. During the last decade, many protected areas of the Natura 2000 network have been established to preserve these butterfly species. Protected areas are managed specifically to support viability of the Maculinea populations. This thesis investigates a current status set of the Natura 2000 sites in southwest Bohemia protecting one or both Maculinea butterfly species. Implementation of the specific management was found to be a crucial factor for successful protection of the Dusky and Scarce large blue butterflies. We found that there are significant differences in managements applied in different locations. Almost half of protected areas are managed in inappropriate ways, their butterfly population sizes were very small or already extinct. Other sites are managed well and stable Maculinea populations live there. An assumption that a specific Maculinea management could also support another rare or endangered species has been tested in this thesis too. All available records (i.e. field inventories,...

InstituÃdas como uma reaÃÃo limitante ao crescimento desmedido do homem sobre o ambiente natural, as Ãreas protegidas apresentam-se presentemente como um relevante componente nas estratÃgias de conservaÃÃo ambiental mundial. MÃltiplos tipos de ecossistemas ameaÃados pela utilizaÃÃo predatÃria de suas extensÃes beneficiam-se diretamente da instituiÃÃo de regras de condutas impostas pela criaÃÃo de unidades de conservaÃÃo, dentre estes, encontram-se as Ãreas marÃtimas. No entanto, assim como espaÃos terrestres, a mera implantaÃÃo de uma Ãrea marinha protegida nÃo garante a preservaÃÃo do ambiente indicado. Deve-se primar pelo exercÃcio de atividades administrativas eficientes que permitam que os objetivos de conservaÃÃo do espaÃo sejam atingidos, de forma a beneficiar o maior nÃmero possÃvel de setores da sociedade local. Visando analisar o grau de efetividade do manejo do Parque Estadual Marinho da Pedra da Risca do Meio, Ãnica unidade de conservaÃÃo marinha do Estado do CearÃ, construiu-se um instrumental metodolÃgico baseado na anÃlise de 24 variÃveis, distribuÃdas entre 7 Ãmbitos. Para cada Ãmbito, foram elaboradas matrizes de avaliaÃÃo que permitiram a classificaÃÃo da efetividade do manejo de cada um destes e, ao integrÃ-los, da unidade de conservaÃÃo em si. A contribuiÃÃo inovadora deste estudo foi o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia que, embora apresente pontos em comum com metodologias anteriormente utilizadas, seja aplicada Ãs Ãreas marinhas protegidas, unidades de conservaÃÃo ainda carentes de estudos sobre eficiÃncia de manejo. Desta forma, a anÃlise do manejo do Parque Estadual Marinho da Pedra da Risca do Meio resultou em 61,46% do seu nÃvel Ãtimo, classificando-o como possuidor de um manejo medianamente satisfatÃrio. Inferiu-se, portanto, que apesar de possuir requisitos bÃsicos de manejo de uma unidade de conservaÃÃo essa Ãrea ainda apresenta lacunas estruturais e administrativas que dificultam o estabelecimento de aÃÃes eficazes na conservaÃÃo dos recursos naturais locais. / Created as a reaction to unlimited growth of modern society over environment, protected areas are nowadays distinctive components in a world-wide conservation strategy. Many kinds of threatened ecosystems are directly benefited by them, avoiding predatory uses of its extensions due to restrictions of behaviors imposed by their establishment. Amongst these, there are maritime areas. However, as well as terrestrial spaces, the mere creation of a marine protected area does not guarantee the environment preservation. The development of efficient administrative activities is really necessary, allowing the reach of its conservation objectives, whilst benefiting the largest possible number of society sectors. Aiming to analyze the effectiveness degree of Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park handling, the only marine protected area of CearÃ, it was established a methodology that analysis 24 variables distributed between 7 ambits. For each ambit, it was elaborated an evaluation matrix that allows a qualification of its handling effectiveness. Integrating all evaluated sector, it was possible to measure the marine protected areaâs handling effectiveness. The analysis of Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park handling effectiveness resulted in a 61.46% of its excellent level, being classified as a medium satisfactory handling. It was inferred, therefore, that although it possess the basic requirement of handling, this marine protected area still have structural and administrative gaps that make it difficult to establish efficient actions in local natural resources conservation.

LIMA FILHO, Joseilton Ferreira . Análise da efetividade de manejo de áreas marinhas protegidas: um estudo do Parque Estadual Marinho da Pedra da Risca do Meio. 2006. 134 f. : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa e Pós-Graduação, Programa Regional de Pós-Graduação em Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente-PRODEMA, Fortaleza-CE, 2006. / Submitted by guaracy araujo (guaraa3355@gmail.com) on 2016-04-28T19:51:27Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_dis_jflimafilho.pdf: 866498 bytes, checksum: 904e575c5968274b499ea9838f6ae909 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by guaracy araujo (guaraa3355@gmail.com) on 2016-04-28T19:51:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_dis_jflimafilho.pdf: 866498 bytes, checksum: 904e575c5968274b499ea9838f6ae909 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T19:51:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006_dis_jflimafilho.pdf: 866498 bytes, checksum: 904e575c5968274b499ea9838f6ae909 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / Created as a reaction to unlimited growth of modern society over environment, protected areas are nowadays distinctive components in a world-wide conservation strategy. Many kinds of threatened ecosystems are directly benefited by them, avoiding predatory uses of its extensions due to restrictions of behaviors imposed by their establishment. Amongst these, there are maritime areas. However, as well as terrestrial spaces, the mere creation of a marine protected area does not guarantee the environment preservation. The development of efficient administrative activities is really necessary, allowing the reach of its conservation objectives, whilst benefiting the largest possible number of society sectors. Aiming to analyze the effectiveness degree of Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park handling, the only marine protected area of Ceará, it was established a methodology that analysis 24 variables distributed between 7 ambits. For each ambit, it was elaborated an evaluation matrix that allows a qualification of its handling effectiveness. Integrating all evaluated sector, it was possible to measure the marine protected area’s handling effectiveness. The analysis of Pedra da Risca do Meio Marine State Park handling effectiveness resulted in a 61.46% of its excellent level, being classified as a medium satisfactory handling. It was inferred, therefore, that although it possess the basic requirement of handling, this marine protected area still have structural and administrative gaps that make it difficult to establish efficient actions in local natural resources conservation. / Instituídas como uma reação limitante ao crescimento desmedido do homem sobre o ambiente natural, as áreas protegidas apresentam-se presentemente como um relevante componente nas estratégias de conservação ambiental mundial. Múltiplos tipos de ecossistemas ameaçados pela utilização predatória de suas extensões beneficiam-se diretamente da instituição de regras de condutas impostas pela criação de unidades de conservação, dentre estes, encontram-se as áreas marítimas. No entanto, assim como espaços terrestres, a mera implantação de uma área marinha protegida não garante a preservação do ambiente indicado. Deve-se primar pelo exercício de atividades administrativas eficientes que permitam que os objetivos de conservação do espaço sejam atingidos, de forma a beneficiar o maior número possível de setores da sociedade local. Visando analisar o grau de efetividade do manejo do Parque Estadual Marinho da Pedra da Risca do Meio, única unidade de conservação marinha do Estado do Ceará, construiu-se um instrumental metodológico baseado na análise de 24 variáveis, distribuídas entre 7 âmbitos. Para cada âmbito, foram elaboradas matrizes de avaliação que permitiram a classificação da efetividade do manejo de cada um destes e, ao integrá-los, da unidade de conservação em si. A contribuição inovadora deste estudo foi o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia que, embora apresente pontos em comum com metodologias anteriormente utilizadas, seja aplicada às áreas marinhas protegidas, unidades de conservação ainda carentes de estudos sobre eficiência de manejo. Desta forma, a análise do manejo do Parque Estadual Marinho da Pedra da Risca do Meio resultou em 61,46% do seu nível ótimo, classificando-o como possuidor de um manejo medianamente satisfatório. Inferiu-se, portanto, que apesar de possuir requisitos básicos de manejo de uma unidade de conservação essa área ainda apresenta lacunas estruturais e administrativas que dificultam o estabelecimento de ações eficazes na conservação dos recursos naturais locais.

Although forest foods are important for health and cultural continuity for millions of Indigenous people, information regarding how people use and access these foods is lacking. Using a qualitative methodology informed by Bribri teachings, this thesis examined the ethnoecology of food harvesting in the Talamanca Bribri Indigenous Territory, Costa Rica. This project illustrates how access to forest food requires: access to multiple land patches, unique landscaping practices, and fostering relationships with non- human beings. By examining wild food consumption by household and generation in one community (Bajo Coen), this research shows how: wild food harvesting is widespread, the majority of youth consume wild food, sharing is fundamental to access wild food, and people consume wild food for many reasons including identity and dietary variety. By examining gender across multiple harvesting stages, this study demonstrates that no single harvesting stage was exclusive to members of one gender and that mixed gender harvesting groups were common; these findings challenge generalizations that women and men engage in different harvesting tasks and highlight the importance of gendered collaboration. This thesis makes applied contributions to ethnobiology and forest management. By analyzing how protected area (PA) regulations shape access to forest food, this thesis highlights how PAs can have negative impacts on: health, nutrition, teaching youth, quality of life, cultural identity, and on the land; these findings are important because they show why Biosphere Reserves need to do more work to ensure their managers support people’s rights to access traditional food. To better understand the macro-level factors that shape food access beyond PAs, this thesis evaluates the political ecology of land access. Findings illustrate how Bribri people’s history of engagement in an inequitable market economy, in concert with discriminatory state policies of land reorganization and management, has created significant hurdles for some people to access forest resources and to grow their own food. This thesis has generated its findings using methods based on Bribri teachings; as such, it: 1) increases awareness of Indigenous methodologies in ethnobiology and 2) generates information about harvesting that accurately represents Bribri people and how they understand the world / May 2016

With the growth in human pressures on the marine environment and the increase in competition for space and resources there has been recognition by many governments of the need to use the marine environment sustainably and allow for its acceptable allocation for each sector. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the use of Marxan and Marxan with Zones as practical tools to enable the production of marine plans that integrate environmental and socioeconomic data and to suggest best practice in the types of data used. In this thesis three key aspects of data type and integration were identified and evaluated. The resolution and complexity of data required to protected marine biodiversity was assessed. The effects of using different substrate data resolution on the selection of sites to protect a range of biotopes using Marxan are determined. The nature of the data used in marine planning has significant implications for the protection of marine biodiversity. Using less complex data, of any resolution, did not adequately protect marine biodiversity. There is a need to determine what is an acceptable allocation of marine resource to each sector. Two case study areas were used to determine how to integrate conservation and socioeconomic data and objectives in a marine plan. Objectives for all the sectors could not be met completely in a single marine plan and each sector had to compromise. This research highlighted the potential compromises required and indicates that if marine heritage and biodiversity are to be protected each sector will have to change the impact it has on the marine environment. Currently marine conservation assumes that all data on habitats and species presented for use in marine planning are equal, in accuracy, precision and value. This is not always the case, with data based on a wide range of sources including routine government monitoring, specific innovative research and stakeholder based data gathering. A case study area was used to evaluate the impacts of using confidence levels in habitat data on marine biodiversity. It was found that data outputs that best protected marine biodiversity used data over 20% and over 30% confidence. With the data currently available for the UK marine environment it is not possible to be confident that a representative MPA network can be created. Together these studies contribute key recommendations for best practice in marine planning and demonstrate that the use of spatial decision support tools (Marxan and Marxan with Zones) are essential for the integration of data in marine planning, to assess how using different types of data will impact marine planning and marine biodiversity protection and to explore implications of different management actions.

Coral reefs are a vital resource in the low-island Republic of Maldives, where the sustainable use of these resources is central to the continued economic success of the country's two largest sectors: tourism and fisheries. This recognition has led to numerous reef conservation and protection activities, including the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). As in many MPAs of the world, those in the Maldives exist only as paper parks: areas protected on paper but not in practice. Despite general recognition of the importance of reef resources, insufficient funds are allocated by government to implement these parks. This situation is compounded by the absence of specific information and detailed understanding by policy makers of the true value and economic benefits of reef resources. This thesis examines the an economic valuation of improved management of MPAs in the Maldives using Dhigali Haa, an MPA in Baa Atoll, Maldives, as a case study. A contingent valuation survey to elicit the willingness to pay of tourists visiting Baa Atoll to see improved management at the MPA was used in estimating the potential benefits. In addition, local community consultations were conducted to understand local perceptions of MPAs and their effectiveness, and to develop a feasible improved management scenario. The local consultations confirmed that Dhigali Haa was not effectively managed, leading to continued illegal use and degradation of the reef. The results of the CV survey revealed support from tourists visiting Baa Atoll to pay for improved management of Dhigali Haa. A one-off conservation fee per visit for all tourists visiting Baa Atoll was preferred over a user fee solely for divers visiting Dhigali Haa. The estimate for the mean WTP for the conservation fee was US$35±5 compared to a mean WTP of US$15±5 for the user fee. Comparisons between the cost of implementing improved management and the benefits gained from tourist fees showed that a conservation fee would be more beneficial than a user fee. The estimated net present value for funding the improved management via a conservation fee was US$8.65 million.

This research is an ethnographic case study of the emerging ecotourism economies in the agricultural village of San Gerardo de Rivas, Pérez Zeledón, Costa Rica. Due to the village’s location as the main entry point to climb the country’s tallest mountain within Chirripó National Park, the majority of households in San Gerardo now derive some income from tourism. I conducted twenty household surveys, followed by twenty-one semi-structured interviews with male and female heads of households and representatives of local organizations and tourism businesses. Drawing on local perspectives, I found that ecotourism was a complementary income source to agriculture and that men and women were engaging differently in ecotourism employment. Local organizations were involved in the participatory management of ecotourism activities within Chirripó National Park. Ecotourism has affected environmental practices and local people are strategically negotiating the direction of tourism development, including through using environmental discourses, to optimize the benefits to their community.

<p>Predmet Disertacije je lovni turizam u za&scaron;tićenim područjima Vojvodine. Prostor&nbsp; Vojvodine dominantno čine poljoprivredne povr&scaron;ine dok se&nbsp; očuvani prirodni<br />kompleksi &scaron;tite kroz zakonski determinisana za&scaron;tićena područja. Na velikom broju za&scaron;tićenih područja odvijaju se aktivnosti lova i lovnog turizma. Kako Vojvodina tradicionalno ima razvijen lovni turizam u za&scaron;tićenim područjima, ovaj oblik&nbsp; turizma je<br />dominantan a često i jedini oblik turističkih aktivnosti. Odvijanje lova i lovnoturističke aktivnosti u za&scaron;tićenim područjima je, naročito u poslednjih, ne&scaron;to vi&scaron;e od dve<br />decenije, stalan izvor nesuglasica i konflikata. Sa jedne strane su protivnici lova i lovnog turizma koji smatraju da ovim aktivnostima nije mesto na za&scaron;tićenim područjima, dok su sa druge oni koji smatraju da ove aktivnosti nemaju &scaron;tetnih efekata po za&scaron;tićena područja. Postoje i oni koji smatraju da lov i lovni turizam, ukoliko&nbsp; se odvijaju uz po&scaron;tovanje zakonskih odredbi i akta o za&scaron;titi, kao i uz usklađivanje interesa svih<br />korisnika prostora, ne mogu da na&scaron;tete za&scaron;tićenim područjima. U radu su pored analize teorijskih sadržaja koji tretiraju predmetnu problematiku analizirani rezultati ankete ispitanika koji su radno angažovani u za&scaron;tićeni područjima, lovstvu i nevladinim<br />organizacijama koje se bave problematikom za&scaron;tite prirode kao i rezultati intervjua koji su urađeni sa eminentnim stručnjacima iz nave denih oblasti. Takođe je&nbsp; analiziran odnos lova i lovnog turizma na 15&nbsp; odabranih za&scaron;tićenih područja. Op&scaron;ti zaključak ovog<br />istraživanja je da je sprovođenje lovnog turizma u za&scaron;tićenim područjima Vojvodine moguće, opravdano i celishodno pod uslovom da se sprovodi u skladu sa naučnim standardima i relevantnim zakonskim propisima.</p> / <p>The Dissertation topic is hunting tourism in the protected areas of Vojvodina Province. Vojvodina region predominantly consists of agricultural areas while preserved natural complexes are protected through legally established protected areas. In a large number of protected areas there are activities of hunting and hunting tourism. As Vojvodina has traditionally developed hunting tourism in protected areas, this form of tourism is dominant and often the only aspect of touristic activities. The activities of hunting and hunting tourism in the protected areas are, especially in a few recent decades, a constant source of disagreements and conflicts. On the one hand there are opponents to hunting and tourist hunting who claim that protected areas are not&nbsp; the place for these activities at all, while on the other hand there are those who believe that these activities do not have any harmful effect on the protected areas. There are also those who think that hunting and hunting tourism, if enforced while respecting the law and the protection&nbsp; act, as well as with compromising the interest&nbsp; of all users of the region, that they cannot do any harm to the protected areas. Besides the analysis of the theoretical contents which deal with the issues on the subject, the work also analyses the results of a poll given by respondents who were hired to work in protected areas, in hunting and non-government organisations which deal with the problem of environment protection, and also analyses the results of the interviews made with eminent experts in the mentioned fields. Furthermore the ratio between hunting and hunting tourism was analysed in 15 selected protected areas. General conclusion of this research is that enforcement of hunting tourism in the protected areas of Vojvodina is&nbsp; possible, justified and expedient, if and only if it is enforced in accordance with the scientific standards and relevant law.</p>