Initiation as a rite of passage is strongly linked to the history and practice of psychotherapy and counselling psychology. The absence of recent studies on this topic encourages research in this area. This research investigates the initiation experiences of seven female participants as they became qualified as psychotherapists and counselling psychologists, i.e. in their ‘becoming a therapist’. Data were collected through open-ended interviews, and narratives analysed using the interpretive-constructivist version of grounded theory developed by Charmaz. The emerged grounded theory (considered a preliminary theory due to the limited number of participants) highlights the interplay between two fundamental agencies of the self: Being and Doing. Their interaction allows female therapists to engage in several inner and outer tasks affecting the shaping of their sense of self. The theory highlights a dynamic and non-linear process of identity transformation and shows how female therapists relate to transitions and changes on a personal and professional level. The emerged theory is relevant and informative for the current practice of counselling psychology, as it emphasises the importance of female therapists' personal and professional development. By considering the psychological impact and influence of initiation, it highlights how the process of female therapists' becoming unfolds and shows how this can serve their clinical practice.

The main purpose of this research was to collect information regarding clinical and counseling psychologists', school psychologists', and child psychiatrists' (a) current knowledge about autism, (b) levels of training and preparedness to provide diagnoses and interventions, (c) common tools and methods used to assess autism, (d) the disorders that are most difficult to differentiate from autism, and (e) the most common recommendations and interventions used for children with autism. Autism currently affects 1 out of 166 children and it has been estimated to have a 10-17% growth annually (Center for Disease Control, 2005). Therefore it is imperative that professionals who work with children who have autism be trained and knowledgeable. No research was found regarding the training, knowledge, assessment, and intervention practices of professionals.A survey was developed to address training, diagnostic techniques, knowledge, and intervention practices of professionals. The survey was initially mailed to a total of 987 professionals within the state of Indiana (394 members of the Indiana Association of School Psychology, 500 members from the Indiana Association of Psychologists, and 99 members from the Council of Child and Adolescent Psychiatrists). A total of 343 usable surveys were returned.Overall, professionals demonstrated a good knowledge base about autism facts verses myths. Professionals also demonstrated good knowledge of disorders that can be comorbid with autism. Professionals underestimated the rate of seizure disorder and mental retardation with autism. Most professionals reported receiving training on autism from workshops and very little training from graduate programs or internships.Professionals reported wanting to have more opportunities for hands-on training with children who have autism. Professionals most often used rating scales when performing assessments for autism and rarely used instruments such as the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) or the Autism Diagnostic Interview- Revised (ADI-R). Respondents felt most comfortable with assessment of autism and least comfortable with providing interventions. Communication disorder was ranked as the most difficult disorder to differentiate from autism by all professionals. Respondents differed on specific interventions they recommended and interventions they actually provided. Implications for professionals, training, and future research are discussed. / Department of Educational Psychology

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the ways that beginning therapists utilize ‘informal supervision’, the process wherein therapists in training engage individuals who are not their formally assigned supervisors in significant conversations about their clinical work. Because the research literature on formal supervision does not adequately acknowledge the frequent use and significance of informal supervision, this study sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of why therapists in training seek informal supervision, what they get out of it, how informal supervision differs from formal supervision, and how it influences trainees’ clinical work and their developing therapeutic identity. Participants were 16 doctoral trainees in clinical and counseling psychology programs. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed using the Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) method. Eleven domains emerged from CQR analysis, and results suggest that informal supervision is a valid practice by which trainees in clinical and counseling doctoral programs in psychology develop clinical and professional competencies. The valuable practice of informal supervision was evident in a multiplicity of arenas: in seeking informal supervision, trainees received validation, reassurance, and emotional support. Additionally, trainees used informal supervision to openly and authentically discuss personal anxieties and self-doubt, strong countertransference reactions to patients, and salient clinical challenges and mistakes. Trainees who used informal supervision gained insight into their clinical work, explored diverse approaches to clinical interventions, and increased their capacity to access and use their personal reactions to patients to further their clinical work. Results also revealed important differences between formal and informal supervision, specifically that informal supervision provides trainees with a unique and important space to discuss clinical interactions that lead them to feel emotionally dysregulated, overwhelmed, confused, concerned, upset, and drained – i.e., those aspects of experience that are often not disclosed or are carefully curated in their presentation to formal supervisors – so that they could better understand and use their personal reactions to influence their clinical work. Regarding the former, i.e., personal challenges of clinical work, trainees revealed their personal anxiety, self-doubt, uncertainty, and shame frequently and non- defensively in informal supervision. Lastly, results showed that participants’ concerns about using informal supervision are considerable, and include anxiety about breaking APA’s ethics codes regarding patient privacy and confidentiality Recommendations are proposed for clinical practice and clinical training, including an ‘ethical’ proposal to integrate informal supervision as an important avenue for trainees’ clinical and personal development throughout their training, and thus legitimize its practice. Clear and innovative ethical guidelines regarding the use of informal supervision that are consistent with the APA’s ethics codes are outlined, and future directions are discussed.

Burnout is considered the final step in the progression of unsuccessful attempts at coping with a number of stressful conditions. The present study aimed to explore the perceived effectiveness of training of educational psychologists at the University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg to manage and cope with stress and burnout. The study also explored the perceived effectiveness of training to cope with demands of the profession, and the choice of coping mechanisms in stress management. The sample consisted of 8 educational psychologists who had completed their degrees at the University of Natal, Pietermartizburg. The sample comprised five males and three females. The study was qualitative in nature and the data was analyzed employing Kruger's phenomenological approach. A semi-structured interview was conducted consisting of four questions. The data received was thereafter analyzed by the phenomenological steps stipulated by Kruger (1988). Categorization of the data revealed the following themes: (a) incongruencies in practice and training; (b) perceived influence of professional training on the choice of coping skills and stress management techniques; (c) stress management techniques and elements that psychologists thought should be included in the training programme; (d) contributory factors of stress and burnout in psychologists, and society's perception of psychologists. A gap was perceived between the training received and practice. The respondents felt that there was a lack of focus on issues pertaining to educational psychology. The meta-issue that arose was that the professional training received was incongruent with work demands. With regard to the choice of coping skills, the training received was perceived as being unhelpful, but aided in the refinement of existing coping skills. The findings of the study are discussed, limitations of the study considered, and suggestions for further research offered. / Thesis (M.Ed.) - University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

Supervision of psychotherapy constitutes a major component of the professional training undertaken by individuals pursuing careers in clinical psychology. The empirical literature has only recently begun to address the impact which supervision has on the development of its recipients. The present study explored relationships between changes in the theoretical orientations and personal values of therapist trainees and the theoretical orientations and values of the training faculty who provided them with supervision during a one year training program. Trainee theoretical orientation and personal values were assessed at the beginning and at the end of the training program for three successive training years, yielding a trainee sample N of 16. Follow-up assessment of theoretical orientation was obtained from this sample three to five years after they had completed this one year program. Background characteristics assessed included measures of personality functioning, locus of control and prior clinical experience. Parallel data were collected from 11 supervisory faculty. Regression analyses assessed the extent to which changes in trainee orientations and values could be predicted on the basis of the perspectives held by their supervisors. Trainees were found to enter the program with a positive bias toward psychoanalytic and experiential forms of therapy and a negative bias toward cognitive-behavioral therapy. Through the follow-up assessment this psychoanalytic orientation was maintained and consolidated. Trainees also became more accepting of cognitive-behavioral treatment and less supportive of experiential therapy. While supervisors' orientations were generally found to be unrelated to changes in trainee orientation during the training period, follow-up data suggested that supervisors had influenced the orientations currently held by former trainees. Changes in orientation were found to be unrelated to trainee background characteristics or level of prior clinical experience. Current findings suggested that trainee perceptions of supervisors' influence were related to supervisor status within the training program. Trainees entered the program with value systems that were similar to those of their supervisors. These values did not change substantially during the course of training. Trainee personality characteristics were more frequent predictors of those value changes which did occur than were supervisor values.

Peer group supervision has the potential to play an important role in the continuing professional development of practising psychologists, by providing a forum where practitioners can learn from each other in a supportive environment, while still maintaining their autonomy. However, research in the area is limited and theoretical conceptualisation around the topic is still at an elementary level. Therefore, one of the aims of this study was to evaluate the utility of peer group supervision for psychologists in practice. The second aim was to generate theory on the relationships between the various factors that play a role in determining the utility of peer group supervision and the mechanisms through which these factors operate. In order to achieve these aims, the research approach was exploratory and qualitative. The naturally occurring group processes of a single group of practising psychologists, who used a model of peer group supervision proposed by Akhurst (2000b), was the focus of this study. Five of their group sessions were audio-taped and transcribed to form the major data source. A brief questionnaire was also administered. A general analytical approach derived from grounded theory was used to analyse the data, with a particular focus on the processes and interactions within the group. Theoretical insights from the field of group dynamics were used to interpret and explain the findings generated from the analysis. The findings of this study suggest that peer group supervision has the potential to meet a number of the professional needs of practising psychologists and is therefore able to make a positive contribution to their professional development. A number of factors that mediate the potential utility of peer group supervision were identified. These factors include membership diversity, group developmental level, group orientation, facilitation style, interaction patterns and the use of structure. Plausible relationships between these factors were suggested, providing an initial picture of the complex interlocking web of factors that act on the group process to determine the utility of peer supervision groups. This understanding was used to suggest possible adaptations that may increase the utility of the model used to structure the group that participated in this study. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

A discrepancy between the number of predoctoral internship applicants and Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers' internship positions has recently been noted (Gloria & Robinson, 1994; Murray, 1996). Applicants now outnumber positions available. This imbalance has caused researchers (e.g., Lopez, Moberly, & Oehlert, 1995) to focus on criteria affecting selection decisions. Researchers, who have relied strictly on non-experimental methodology, have ascertained that important and consistent criteria for intern selectors are breadth and types of clinical experiences, performance during interviews, and letters of recommendation.A criteria that was not specifically addressed in earlier surveys of intern selectors was doctoral program type (i.e. clinical, counseling, and school psychology). Interestingly, doctoral program type had been hypothesized by Gayer and Gridley (1995) to have a significant impact on intern selection decisions, such that a preference pattern would emerge with clinical applicants preferred over counseling applicants, and counseling applicants preferred over school applicants. This pattern was hypothesized to occur even if application materials from the three doctoral program types were identical. The present study, in the form of an experimental survey utilizing analogue techniques, was developed to test the aforementioned hypothesis. Results confirmed that doctoral program type has a statistically significant, moderate influence on intern screening/selection and that the hypothesized preference patterns pervasively exist across a variety of selector (e.g., gender and doctoral program type attended) and setting (e.g., geographic location, site type, population density in the site's locale, and socioeconomic status of a site's clientele) variables. Implications of this preference pattern and recommendations for applicants, trainers, and selectors are discussed. / Department of Educational Psychology

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are being diagnosed at alarmingly high rates and school psychologists are charged with evaluating, identifying, and providing interventions for students with ASD in the United States’ public school systems. A national survey probed Nationally Certified School Psychologists (NCSP) to determine their level of knowledge in the area of autism assessment; the assessment methods, measures, and techniques they employed; their level of training; and their level of preparation and confidence. Results indicated training positively affected NCSPs knowledge about autism; their levels of involvement with students with autism; and their perceived levels of preparation to work with this population. Of the 662 participants, the majority accurately identified true and false statements about autism and the diagnostic features suggesting they had a clear understanding of how to diagnose autism. Participants with more training reported an increased level of involvement on multidisciplinary teams and an ability to diagnose autism when compared to those with less training. Brief rating scales were among the most commonly used instruments, while lengthier, more robust diagnostic instruments were among the least-often employed suggesting school psychologists are not trained or are too strapped for time and resources to use these instruments. Participants felt more prepared to provide consultation and assessment services and less prepared to provide interventions. More than half (57.5%) of participants reported they had formal training (completed formal course work or internship experience) in autism, but just over 40% had only informal training in the form of workshop or in-service attendance. The National Research Council (2001) stresses that workshops are not an appropriate substitute for effective training, supervision, and consultation, indicating too many of the nation’s school psychologists lack sufficient training in the area of autism. These data and previous research (i.e., Filipek et al., 1999; Ikeda, 2002; Spears, Tollefson, & Simpson, 2001) suggest school psychologists need more formal training and experience in meeting the needs of individuals identified with autism. / Department of Educational Psychology

Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Department of Educational Psychology

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