The present exploratory study attempted to investigate the frequency of codeswitching, preferred learning/cognitive style for decision-making processes and the relationship to the development of bicognitive skills among three categories of successful Puerto Ricans. Three categories of Puerto Ricans were identified as: Puerto Ricans who came from Puerto Rico to pursue a master of doctorate degree (Group I); Puerto Ricans who came to the United States during their teenage years and finished their education in the States (up to master's and/or doctorate degree--Group II); and second generation Puerto Ricans (born, raised and educated--master or doctorate degree--in the United States--Group III). A total of fifteen (15) subjects participated in the study: nine (9) in Group I, three (3) in Groups II and III. The criteria aforementioned was used for participants screening selection and specific answers to six research questions were sought. Data for the study were collected through audiotaped ethnographic interviews, Cultural Life Style Inventory (Mendoza, 1986), and transcript records. The results of the analysis of the frequency of codeswitching among all participants suggested the existence of codeswitching as a sociolinguistic phenomenon; topics, the content of the questions and whether the questions were asked in Spanish or English played an important role in generating switches to either English or Spanish. Codeswitching varied in frequency according to the questions asked to participants. The predominant topics that triggered the occurrence of codeswitching were philosophy of life, experiences in the United States, food, influences of three cultures on the development of bicognitive skills and language competency. Participants exposed to both (field independence/sensitive) learning styles are able to respond appropriately no matter what the situation; whether it is taking a standardized test, working by him or herself or working in groups. The results of the analysis of participants' responses of how codeswitching and bicognitivism relate to each other suggest that the exposure to two (2) cultures (Puerto Rican and American) positively influenced their ability to develop bicognitive skills. There seem to be more similarities between Group I and II and between either of them and Group III with regards to the frequency of switching from English to Spanish and vice versa when answering the interview questions. The preferred language to answer questions for Group I and II was Spanish. For Group III it was English. The overwhelming majority of the participants expressed that it was fine to codeswitch. The results were interpreted as indicating that the degree of bilingualism, degree of biculturalism, and learning/cognitive style contribute to the development and enhancement of bicognitive skills.

Intimacy is an important aspect of human life. Little is known, however, about cultural differences of concepts of intimacy from a developmental perspective. Individuals' capacities for concepts of intimacy are manifested by their Social Cognitive Development stages. The main purpose of this dissertation is to examine cultural differences of concepts of intimacy and Social Cognitive Developmental stages in American and Chinese young adults. The first chapter reviews relevant literature; cross-cultural methodological considerations and suggestions for future intimacy research are also addressed. The second chapter describes an empirical study to test the cultural differences of concepts of intimacy and perspective taking abilities in American and Chinese female university students; it also examines whether the results of the relationship between concepts of relationships and perspective taking abilities support Selman's (1980) assumptions. Twelve white Americans from the U.S. and twelve Taiwan Chinese participated. Based on the structure of Selman's (1980, p. 322-323) "friends dilemma" (adolescent and adult version), four dilemmas (same-sex, opposite-sex, boyfriend-girlfriend and mother-daughter) were developed in English and then translated into Chinese. Selman's (1980) model was applicable but not all data were described in his model; traditional concepts of relations stages and perspective taking levels were found. The quantitative results found significant differences in American and Chinese subjects' concepts of relations stages but not in perspective taking levels. Significant differences were found on the lowest CR scores on general questions and across domains and on the frequency distributions of concepts of relations stages. American subjects gave a higher percentage of CR 2 and CR 2/3 stages scores than their Chinese counterparts. The qualitative data analysis found similarities and differences in American and Chinese subjects' concepts of intimacy; some differences were related to cultural norms. The results of this study do not support Selman's assumption that perspective taking levels are a "necessary but not sufficient" condition for the same parallel concepts of relations stages. Perspective taking levels and concepts of relations stages could be two ways of measuring the same constructs. Implications, suggestions for future studies, limitations, and applications for interventions are also addressed.

War is a one of the major causes of child mortality and morbidity worldwide. Research evidence suggests that exposure to war trauma increases a child's risk of developing psychological problems, both short and long term. However, studies of resilience have shown that some children have a remarkable ability to survive trauma with little or no damage to their psyche. This dissertation is a study of individuals who have survived childhood war trauma and managed to rise above the odds to function well in major areas of life. The study was designed to explore factors contributing to their ability to remain resilient in the face of adversity. Using in-depth phenomenological interviewing, ten Cambodian child survivors were interviewed. All of the participants were separated from their families in 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took over and suffered extraordinarily difficult ordeals during their internment in the labor camps. Some managed to reunite with their families in 1979 after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia before fleeing to the refugee camps in Thailand. Others lost all of their family members and came to the US as accompanied minors. Findings emerging from this study reveal that family cohesion, positive childhood memories, supportive recovery environment, stubborn determination to overcome obstacles, and Buddhist values are important factors that work together to produce resiliency. All of the participants were raised by empathic parents and learned to become self-reliant at an early age. The affection and warmth which marked those early years were the most important in sustaining them during difficult times in their lives. The Buddhist values of accepting suffering as their fate allowed them to form greater tolerance of the hardships and enabled them to face adversity with optimism and confidence. As survivors, they are proud and determined to make the most of "the second chance" granted to them. In the resettlement phase, they were able to heal their wounds quickly by letting bygones be bygones and optimistically moving toward the future. The safe and supportive recovery environment combined with an easy access to different resources made it possible for them to quickly put their shattered lives back together.

This study assessed the degree to which ethnic identity, ethnic identity achievement, self perceived differences in skin color, self-esteem, gender and social class were associated with academic achievement (GPA) among Asian (105), Latino (40), Caucasian (204), Afro-American (40), and Native American (10) adolescents. The subjects, students from an independent residential high school in the Northeast, consisted of both genders, grades 9 through 13 from a range of socioeconomic statuses (N = 408). Each student was handed a packet to complete and signed the consent form. Each subject was then instructed to choose the closest skin color from a skin color chart specifically developed for this study. Interviews were completed after each student's skin color was also rated by three independent raters. Subjects completed the skin color chart developed by the examiner for this study, the Rosenberg (global) Self-esteem Scale, the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, and the Hollingshead Two Factor Index of Social Position. Academic performance measures (GPA) and academic aptitude scores (V & MSAT) were obtained from school files, reflecting the yearly average performance. Correlations between ethnic identity and ethnic identity achievement revealed a significant negative correlation with GPA, VSAT and MSAT for the entire group but dissimilar results for the specific ethnic groups. In addition, correlations between gender, skin color, grade level, SES and GPA by ethnic group revealed significant findings for some but not all ethnic groups. In addition, multiple regression analysis results revealed, when SES was controlled, that Skin Color, Gender and Ethnic Identity Achievement (EIA), in order of strength, had a positive correlation with GPA, explaining 12% of the variance for the African American, Latino and Native American subgroups (in order of degree). On the other hand, multiple regression results revealed no difference in GPA scores for the Asian subgroup, whereas a negative trend was revealed for the White subgroup.

<p> English phonological abilities of Spanish- and English-speaking bilingual children were compared to those of monolingual children at 30 months of age and at five years. Measures of language abilities and language experience at 30 months were included in order to determine the impact that these variables have on English phonological ability. We hypothesized that early phonological abilities will be predictive of later phonological abilities for both monolingual and bilingual children. We also hypothesized that early language abilities and experience with each language will be predictive of concurrent and later phonological abilities, but we expected the relationship to be stronger between English language abilities and phonological abilities than Spanish language abilities and English phonological abilities. Phonology measures were collected for 10 monolingual and 47 bilingual participants at 30 months and at five years of age. Results indicate that early English phonological abilities are not predictive of later phonological abilities for monolingual or bilingual children. Although language experience was related to language ability (vocabulary size), relative exposure to English was not directly related to English phonological abilities. Although monolingual children had significantly poorer English phonological abilities at 30 months than monolingual English speaking children, their English phonological abilities were commensurate with those of the monolingual group at five years. These findings suggest that bilingual children are learning properties of English phonology at a faster rate than their monolingual peers between 30 months and five years of age.</p>

<p> Using the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity, this qualitative study examined the influence the News Feed function of Facebook had on multiracial community college students. Entering college at a time when racial identity development is heightened and social networking sites have changed the college experience, multiracial students are constantly engaging with peers. As multiracial students receive messages about their racial identity on social media, there is a need to understand the role these platforms have in shaping how multiracial students understand their identity. </p><p> Interview and audio recording data from seven community college students was organized along three main themes: participants&rsquo; use of Facebook, cultivation of News Feed content and intentional (re)actions to information, and overall influence on multiracial identity. Participants experienced negative emotional responses when reviewing race-related content and felt racially inadequate as a result of content from monoracial peers. Recommendations relate to student affairs practice and higher education policy.</p><p>

<p> Ethnic identity is a major component of the psychological development and well-being of adolescents and adults. In the United States, immigrants are often tasked with balancing their minority culture and a dominant White American culture. This study used the two-dimensional Racial/Cultural Identity Development (R/CID) Model to illustrate progression toward an integrated ethnic identity, in which individuals identify with and integrate their minority ethnic group and the dominant group. An integrated identity is achieved at the Integrative Awareness status of the R/CID Model. Individuals at this status are found to possess more psychological resources to cope with psychosocial crises as compared to other statuses (i.e., Conformity, Dissonance, Resistance and Immersion, Introspection). </p><p> The Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS) dataset was used to identify three patterns of ethnic identity over ten years, with each pattern capturing varying proximity to an Integrative Awareness status. Participants were all children of immigrants, either 1.5 or second generation immigrants themselves, and had self-identified their ethnic identity at two points over ten years. Each self-identification was categorized as (1) American, (2) Racial/Panethnic, (3) National Origin, or (4) Hyphenated, and was representative of a particular status in the R/CID Model; that is, American was representative of &ldquo;Conformity,&rdquo; Racial/Panethnic of &ldquo;Dissonance,&rdquo; National Origin of &ldquo;Resistance and Immersion,&rdquo; and Hyphenated of &ldquo;Integrative Awareness.&rdquo; Next, a participant&rsquo;s change in self-identification over ten years was labeled as either a change Toward Integrative Awareness (e.g. from American to Hyphenated), a change Away from Integrative Awareness (e.g. Hyphenated to American), or Static (i.e., no change in self-identification). Toward Integrative Awareness, Away from Integrative Awareness, and Static were the three patterns of ethnic identity development. </p><p> Direct discriminant analyses were conducted on a group of participants (n = 2,528) from the CILS dataset to test whether discrimination experience, knowledge of native language, self-esteem, level of education, importance of ethnic identity, and family cohesion distinguished between the three patterns of ethnic identity development. Results revealed two discriminant functions, which in combination, significantly differentiated the three patterns. Correlations between the predictors and ethnic identity development patterns for all children of immigrants in the sample were evaluated. Of all the predictors, discrimination experience had the strongest relationship with the ethnic identity development patterns when the entire sample was considered. Children of immigrants who experienced more discrimination across ten years tended to move Toward Integrative Awareness. The contribution of predictors in distinguishing between the three patterns varied by gender in that both discriminant functions significantly differentiated the patterns for women but not for men. There was also variation across generational status with discriminant functions being significant for 1.5 generation immigrants but not for second generation. No such variation was observed among Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and White racial groups. Results provide insight into the normative ethnic identity development of immigrants and suggest a need for more research and theories that highlight the nuanced experiences of female immigrants and 1.5 generation immigrants. </p><p>

<p> This study reveals the experience of 8 Albanian women living in communities in Kosovo as survivors of large-scale trauma. The researcher used the Cultural Formation Interview (Informant Version, DSM-V, 2013) to explore the cultural perception of cause, context, support, barriers, coping strategies and help-seeking behavior for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The interviews yield colloquial descriptions of symptoms such as depression, somatic disorders, disassociation, intrusive thoughts and anxiety. The women identified cultural coping behaviors of talking about it, going to the doctor, faith, working hard and making a change in routine. The importance of the role of the husband is highlighted. They describe barriers of stigma and poverty which limit resource access. It is recommended that research be done on a model of PTSD treatment in Kosovo using community-based intervention through meaning focused coping and culture-embedded methods with culture-unique descriptors for addressing trauma-related distress and enhancing post-trauma growth. The study includes other clinical implications, limitations and suggestions for future research.</p><p>

The aim of this study was to increase our knowledge about the prevalence and nature of childhood sexual abuse in Latino populations. Specifically, data was gathered for the following purposes: (1) to determine the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse and sexual experiences in a sample of Puerto Rican college students, (2) to identify risk factors associated with them, (3) to analyze the nature and degree of trauma reported by victims, and (4) to examine the differences between the Puerto Rican sample and a New England college student sample previously studied by Finkelhor (1979). Self-reports of childhood sexual experiences were obtained from 571 Puerto Rican undergraduate students (206 males and 365 female) at three institutions of higher education in Puerto Rico. The mean age of participants was 22.2 years. A Spanish translation of sections of a self-report questionnaire developed by Finkelhor (1979) was used to gather the information. Seventeen percent of male students and 17% of female students reported childhood sexual experiences that were classified as child sexual abuse on the same age discrepancy criteria used by Finkelhor (1979). No statistically significant differences were found between the percentage of female students (17%) who reported childhood sexual abuse experiences in this study and the percentage (19%) in the New England study (19%) by Finkelhor. A higher percentage of male participants (17%) in the present study reported childhood sexual abuse as compared to males (9%) in Finkelhor's original study. This represented a significant difference (X$\sp2$ = 8.27, p $<$.01) between males in the present study and Finkelhor's. Sexual abuse experiences occurred most often between 10 and 12 years of age for both sexes and in both studies. No differences were found between the students who reported childhood sexual abuse in this study and those who did not in terms of demographic and other family background characteristics. Twenty-one percent of the abusers were female and 79% were male. Thirty-eight percent of the childhood sexual abuse experiences reported by girls and 33% of those reported by boys were with family members. Females reported more negative reactions to the experiences and higher degrees of trauma than males.

<p> The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the identity development of mixed race Asian students, also known as Hapas, and the influence of college environments of their perceptions of self. More specifically, this study will use Narrative Inquiry to gain insight into the lives and experiences of 20 Hapa students at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn). In order to uncover the shared experience of Hapas on this college campus and to discern any specific activities or aspects of university life that contributed to their identity development while at Penn, I conducted 20 one-on-one interviews. I also conducted one focus group with 8 of the participants in order to observe the interactions between the students. This topic is relevant to student affairs administrators and faculty because of the rapidly changing demographics in the United States. Some projections estimate that by 2050, mixed race Asian people will represent the largest Asian constituency in the country, thus potentially changing the face of our campuses.</p>