This associational study examines Maternal Separation Anxiety in a sample of at least college educated, employed mothers with young children in non-maternal care selected from Phase I of the National Institutes of Child Health and Development study of early child care. The study provides descriptive data on maternal separation anxiety from 6 months to 24 months after birth of a child, its association with indices of mother-child relations, and whether these associations are merely a manifestation of general neuroticism/anxiety or depressive symptoms, or if there is something unique about maternal separation anxiety of relevance to mother-child relations. Self-report and observational data on 147 mothers indicated that maternal separation anxiety showed high individual stability, but on average decreased over time. Maternal personality characteristics and maternal education level showed modest associations with MSA. However, MSA was associated with neither observed maternal behavior at day care drop-offs and pick-ups, nor infant-mother attachment in the expected patterns. Results suggest that MSA may not be a fruitful approach to thinking about parenting in a White, well-educated sample of women.

This study uses Cases neo-Piagetian theory (1991) of cognitive development as a conceptual framework to investigate social cognitive development from childhood through late adolescence. Method: Using a coding scheme based on the Case model of cognitive development to evaluate performance on a measure of social reasoning abilities (Movie Clips Task), we examined the relationship between age and levels of cognitive complexity (so-called dimensional and vectorial stages of cognitive complexity). We also examined the contributions of working memory, information processing speed, and verbal IQ on social reasoning complexity. Results: Consistent with Cases theory, adolescents (n = 25) had significantly higher percentages of vectorial responses than pre-adolescents (n = 21), indicative of a greater frequency of responses that are representative of the highest level of cognitive development. Also, in accordance with Cases theory (1992a), information processing speed and working memory were independently associated with Movie Clips task performance, although when entered simultaneously in a linear regression model, only information processing speed significantly predicted performance on the Movie Clips task. Last, partial support for criterion validity for the Movie Clips task was demonstrated by its significant correlation with performance on an alternative measure of social cognitive abilities. The findings support Cases cognitive developmental theory and suggest that social cognitive abilities develop through adolescence.

This cross-sectional, quantitative and qualitative study examines the roles of race and income level in adolescent girls knowledge about menstruation, feelings of preparation for menarche, and attitudes toward menstruation. Participants included 169 newly postmenarcheal adolescents between the ages of 11 and 15. Participants were categorized into four groups: Caucasians from higher income homes (N = 37), Caucasians from lower income homes (N = 46), African Americans from higher income homes (N = 33), and African Americans from lower income homes (N = 53). Race was determined via self-report. Income level was determined by a self-report qualification status for free or reduced lunches. The outcomes indicated that, overall, participants lacked accurate menstrual knowledge and felt unprepared for menarche. However, the overall menstrual attitudes reported by participants were ambivalent, indicating that menstrual attitudes do not appear to be negatively affected by a lack of menstrual knowledge and preparation. Additionally, by themselves, race and income level do not seem to play a substantial role in adolescents understanding of menarche and menstruation. They do, however, seem to interact, with the real differences lying between higher income Caucasians and each of the other three racial and income level groupings. As a group, the responses of higher income Caucasian participants stood apart from and indicated that they faired better than the other race and income level groupings. Furthermore, participants appeared to incorporate menstrual taboos into how they approached learning about menstruation and preparing for menarche, but not necessarily in their development of menstrual attitudes. Results from this study could be useful for health care providers and educators for improving ways in which information about menstruation is addressed and disseminated. The delivery method of information can be tailored so that it is better received by different racial and income groups. These results could also prove useful in the development of programs targeted to specific racial or income level groups to educate and empower adolescent girls about menstruation and their health.

There has been a growing emphasis on understanding the links between children's social characteristics and academic achievement. Socio-emotional characteristics linked with academic performance are known as learning-related social skills (LRSS). Prior research has mostly examined the links between LRSS in early childhood and short-term assessments of academic achievement. More recent studies have begun to examine trajectories of achievement, but they have primarily been linked with early LRSS. Given that children interact with several potential socializing agents such as teachers and peers when they are in school, links between middle childhood LRSS and academic trajectories require attention. In this study, links between three indices of LRSS (attention, self-regulation, and behavior problems) and trajectories of reading, vocabulary, and math were examined from first through fifth grade. Early LRSS and demographic factors were also considered. It was expected that between-children differences in middle childhood attention problems, self-regulation, and behavior problems would be associated with average levels of achievement and growth over time. Within-child changes in attention problems, self-regulation, and behavior problems were also expected to be associated with changes in achievement. Another goal of the study was to examine whether LRSS moderated the links between family income and achievement and between gender and achievement. It was expected that having higher LRSS would be associated with a lower risk of poor achievement for children from low income families and for boys. Using HLM 6.03, these links were tested in a subset of the data from the NICHD SECCYD (n = 1123). Missing data were imputed by subgroups of race/ethnicity. Between-children differences on teacher-reports of attention problems displayed significant negative links with the average levels, but not with the slopes, of reading, math, and vocabulary. Early LRSS were better predictors of the intercepts of achievement but not after taking demographic factors into account. Within-child changes in LRSS during middle childhood were not significantly associated with changes in achievement. Interactions between poverty and LRSS were also not significant. However, higher levels of teacher-reported attention problems were associated with higher levels of math scores for girls. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

This study explored the nature of parental involvement and racial socialization as potential protective factors for aspiration construction and achievement among low-income, Black adolescents. Qualitative data were used to assess the relationship between parental involvement, racial socialization, specificity of aspirations, and level of achievement. Additionally, racial identity was considered qualitatively and quantitatively as a potential mechanism through which racial socialization relates to adolescent aspirations and achievement. Participants were 26 student-parent dyads recruited from a low-income, urban fringe high school. All participants took part in semi-structured one-on-one interviews, and adolescents also completed The Multi-ethnic Identity Measure. Findings indicate that some differences exist in types of parental behavior, racial socialization, and aspects of racial identity between high and low achieving students. A relationship between adolescents ability to construct aspirations and achievement was also evident. Implications of findings are discussed, in terms of how best to support aspirations and achievement of high-risk adolescents.

Despite recent growth in research highlighting the potential of teacher-child relationships to promote childrens development, important questions remain about the stability and relevance of relationships between teachers and children beyond the early school years. By incorporating results from two related, longitudinal studies using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care (NICHD SECC, 1993), this investigation answer nuanced questions about the developmental pattern of teacher-child relationships and their association with childrens development across elementary school. The first study identifies distinctive developmental trajectories of teacher-child relationship quality from kindergarten through 5th grade, using a semiparametric group-based approach (Nagin, 2005). In addition, it tests whether child and family characteristics are linked to particular relationship trajectory groups. The second study examines longitudinal connections between teacher-child relationships and childrens development throughout elementary school. Using two-level hierarchical linear models (HLM, Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002), this study examines within- and between-child associations between teacher-child relationship quality and academic achievement and behavior problems from kindergarten through 5th grade. Additionally, it considers whether relationships with teachers matter more for the developing competence of disadvantaged children. Results from the first study demonstrate that four distinct trajectories of teacher-child relationship quality can be identified from kindergarten through 5th grade. Specifically, one large group of children showed a stable trajectory of high relationship quality, two groups showed qualitatively different trajectories of decreasing quality, and a fourth group showed a trajectory of increased quality. Both characteristics and competencies of the child and his or her family were found to be useful predictors of membership in each trajectory group. Results of the second study indicate that relationship quality teachers report with students is associated with trajectories of achievement and behavior problems from kindergarten through 5th grade for all children, regardless of their socioeconomic risk status. Taken together, these findings support the idea that different quality teacher-child relationships constitute an important context for the development of childrens competence in school.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the joint and collective contributions of student and teacher factors to observed variance in reports of conflict and closeness in first and second grade teacher-student relationships (STR). This study uses two data sets previously collected from elementary schools in the greater Pittsburgh area, to examine the association between child and teacher factors with the relationship qualities of closeness and conflict in early elementary teacher child relationships. Children from each sample were followed from 1st to 2nd grade (N=96 and N=44 respectively), and data were collected from parents and teachers, as well as through direct observation in each academic year. Parents reported on child externalizing behavior using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (Achenbach, 1981), and sociability using the Buss and Plomin Emotionality Activity Level and Sociability Inventory (EAS) (Buss & Plomin, 1984). Teachers reported on the quality of their relationship each participating student using the Student Teacher Relationship Survey (STRS) (Pianta, 2001). Additionally, observations were made of teacher classroom behavior using the Arnett Caregiver interaction scale. Child externalizing behavior and teacher sensitivity, detachment and punitiveness were tested for association with 1st and 2nd grade teacher reported conflict. Child sociability and teacher sensitivity, detachment and punitiveness were tested for association with 1st and 2nd grade teacher reported closeness. These factors were also used to predict change in teacher student relationship quality between 1st and 2nd grades. Results showed student externalizing behavior to be positively associated with contemporaneous relationship conflict, and teacher detachment and punitiveness to be associated inversely with contemporaneous closeness. Teacher sensitivity and student externalizing behavior interacted when predicting change in relationship conflict. Teacher sensitivity and change in teacher sensitivity both predicted change in relationship closeness. These results both replicate and extend the body of existing research on teacher student relationship quality. The association of child externalizing behavior to relationship conflict was replicated, although the observed effect size was significantly different from previous findings. The contribution of teacher classroom behavior to the prediction of variance in relationship closeness is unique to this study. Additionally, the prediction of change in relationship quality using student and teacher factors, as well as the joint contribution of each, is an extension of existing research. Results are discussed in terms of functional avoidance by the teacher and the student of difficult behaviors exhibited by each other. Implications for early elementary teacher training and preparation are also discussed.

Assessing IRT model-fit and comparing different IRT models from a Bayesian perspective is gaining attention. This research evaluated the performance of Bayesian model-fit and model-comparison techniques in assessing the fit of unidimensional Graded Response (GR) models and comparing different GR models for performance assessment applications. The study explored the general performance of the PPMC method and a variety of discrepancy measures (test-level, item-level, and pair-wise measures) in evaluating different aspects of fit for unidimensional GR models. Previous findings that the PPMC method is conservative were confirmed. In addition, PPMC was found to have adequate power in detecting different aspects of misfit when using appropriate discrepancy measures. Pair-wise measures were found more powerful in detecting violations of unidimensionality and local independence assumptions than test-level and item-level measures. Yens Q3 measure appeared to perform best. In addition, the power of PPMC increased as the degree of multidimensionality or local dependence among item responses increased. Two classical item-fit statistics were found effective for detecting the item misfit due to discrepancies from GR model boundary curves. The study also compared the relative effectiveness of three Bayesian model-comparison indices (DIC, CPO, and PPMC) for model selection. The results showed that these indices appeared to perform equally well in selecting a preferred model for an overall test. However, the advantage of PPMC applications is that they can be used to compare the relative fit of different models, but also evaluate the absolute fit of each individual model. In contrast, the DIC and CPO indices only compare the relative fit of different models. This study further applied the Bayesian model-fit and model-comparison methods to three real datasets from the QCAI performance assessment. The results indicated that these datasets were essentially unidimensional and exhibited local independence among items. A 2P GR model provided better fit than a 1P GR model, and a two-dimensional model was also not preferred. These findings were consistent with previous studies, although Stones fit statistics in the PPMC context identified less misfitting items compared to previous studies. Limitations and future research for Bayesian applications to IRT are discussed.

The CEPA-English test is used for achievement, selection, and placement purposes. Since this test has heavily influences students academic futures, it is imperative to ensure that the test functions as intended and provides meaningful results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the technical quality of the CEPA-English test in relation to Forms A and B. This study evaluated 1) the psychometric properties of the CEPA-English test, 2) the extent to which DIF occurs, 3) the comparability of Forms A and B, and 4) the amount of information provided at the cutoff score of 150, which is the mean of the test in the NAPO study. The study sample included 9,496 students for Form A and 9,296 for Form B, taken from the 2007 administration. The results for both Forms A and B test data revealed that the unidimensional 3PL IRT model provided a better fit at both item and test levels than the 1PL or 2PL models and the assumptions of the 3PL model were met. However, the property of invariance of item parameters was not strictly met for Form A and to some extent for Form B. Overall, the analyses revealed that the CEPA-English test demonstrated good psychometric properties, since in both forms, the majority of the items were of moderate difficulty. In addition, items moderately discriminated between high-performing and low-performing students, and both forms showed a high internal reliability. Yet, it was also found that the test could be improved by eliminating items with negative discrimination and adding easier items to gain more precise information at the cutoff score of 150. In addition, the test developer may want to evaluate items that misfit the 3PL model. Finally, while DIF items were detected between males and females, and between Arts and Sciences students, nevertheless a significant proportion of DIF items were flagged by school type, which may indicate curriculum differences across private, public, and home schools. Therefore, the test developer could evaluate items with a medium and large DIF to determine whether to revise or eliminate them from Forms A and B of the CEPA-English test.

The current trends in science education emphasize students engagement in scientific inquiry and deemphasize memorization of factual knowledge. In response to these trends, reform-based curricula often characterize students engaging in science investigations by listing the detailed steps of scientific practices. Unfortunately, if curricula stress procedures more than conceptual connections, students understanding of science may be distorted. To ensure the effectiveness of science education reform, this study was designed to bring attention to the differences between the procedures for carrying out investigations and the conceptual knowledge involved in doing the investigations. This study explored teachers use of a hands-on science curriculum and its impact on student learning using multiple assessments. The relationships between student learning of conceptual or procedural knowledge and teachers talk about conceptual or procedural knowledge in their classrooms were investigated. Three teachers and their third-grade students participated in this study during the teaching of the measurement and sound units from a inquiry-based curriculum. One teacher had participated in an enhanced professional development workshop but the other two comparison teachers did not. The results showed that students from the three classes displayed similar knowledge of measurement procedures but different conceptual understanding of measurement and sound properties. Results from classroom observations indicated that teachers enacted the curriculum differently by either stressing the procedures of the activities or making conceptual connections between the activities and content knowledge. One of the comparison teachers emphasized the step-by-step procedures for using measurement tools, whereas the other two teachers constantly made reference to related measurement concepts or to everyday experiences. The patterns between student learning and teachers enactment suggested that higher percentages of conceptual talk in the classroom were associated with better performance on conceptual understanding. The results of this study are consistent with prior research that showed that the implementation of hands-on science curricula could result in limited instruction in science concepts and reduced conceptual learning by their students. These findings suggest that it is important to help teachers focus on conceptual as well as procedural knowledge when using an inquiry-based curriculum to enhance the quality of science education reform.