<p> The predictive validity of the Displaced Aggression Questionnaire (DAQ) was studied by allowing participants to engage in both displaced and direct aggression. Participants were given the DAQ and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), assessments of trait displaced and direct aggression, respectively. Participants were then provoked and given the opportunity to engage in both direct and displaced aggression. Results indicated that both the DAQ and the AQ were positively correlated with both displaced and direct aggression. Furthermore, the type of aggression dependent measure (viz., physical versus verbal) did not moderate these effects. Finally, there was a significant negative correlation between the DAQ and the Differentiation of Self Questionnaire, which measures the process of separating from ones multigenerational family, indicating that higher levels of trait displaced aggression are associated with negative differentiation from one's family of origin. Implications for both predicting and reducing aggressive behavior are discussed. </p>

<p> This thesis utilizes hermeneutic methodology and a depth perspective to explore how women&rsquo;s connection with their bodies impacts their growth during the individuation process. Western culture is discussed in terms of its emphasis on rational thought and progress&mdash;the realm of Yang and Logos. Although the phenomenon of the dominating masculine principle has enabled rapid technological and scientific development, repercussions may exist as a result of the suppressed Yin and Eros energies. Such ramifications are examined in relevance to Jung&rsquo;s theory of individuation and the body. Separation from the body is researched through studies on objectification theory, dissociation, disordered eating, and cosmetic surgery. Alternatively, practices including yoga, Vipassana meditation, Watsu, Authentic Movement, and image-based bodywork are reviewed to illuminate the benefit of somatic connection. Results indicate that integrating the body, mind, and soul through conscious awareness can facilitate Weetern women&rsquo;s journey toward wholeness.</p>

<p> This hermeneutic study starts with a critical review of three formal approaches to group visioning: future search, appreciative inquiry (AI), and scenario planning. It then establishes a foundation for an archetypal psychological approach to such visioning. The research reviews future search, AI, and scenario planning from a depth psychological perspective and against two sets of vital considerations. The first set considers the participants' psychological relationship to the future and the second their psychological relationship to their groups. </p><p> Future search and AI arose in the field of organizational development; scenario planning first as a military strategy. All three currently appear as interventions for both organizations and communities. However, only future search and scenario planning explicitly recognize the unconscious, and none account for the participants' temporal biases. Zimbardo and Boyd (2008) would describe these approaches as made by futures for futures. They work best when participants already have a future orientation. Furthermore, the approaches vary in the ways they account for Bion's (1961) observation that humans are group animals who are not only in conflict with the group, but also with themselves for being group animals. </p><p> The second part of this study establishes a foundation for an approach to group visioning based on archetypal psychology. The approach begins by identifying the group's dominant archetypes, the archetypes' goals, and the archetypal field present in the external environment. It then links the group's vision to the aims of the group's dominant archetypes. </p><p> This study contributes to the fields of depth psychology, liberation psychology, and organizational and community development. Despite Freud's (1922/1955) and Jung's (1935/1966) negative opinions of groups and organizations, individuals are always involved with a group. This research addresses this fact and its relationship to liberation psychology, which aims to empower the excluded voices on the social margins (Watkins &amp; Shulman, 2008). Some organizational researchers already view organizations from a depth psychological perspective (Corlett &amp; Pearson, 2003). However, none ties the archetypes to the vision of the organization. This work clearly identifies and examines this vital link.</p>

<p> Posttraumatic Growth (PTG) refers to positive psychological change experienced as a result of the struggle with grievous life circumstances that often coexist with significant psychological distress (Tedeschi &amp; Calhoun, 1996). PTG makes clear that persons experiencing this phenomenon have grown beyond their previous level of psychological functioning. PTG is recognized in four domains of change, including perception of self, relationships with others, philosophy of life, and spiritual transformations (Tedeschi &amp; Calhoun, 1996). The present study explored the concept of PTG and transformation among twelve Cambodian community leaders who are survivors of the Khmer Rouge genocide. Based on a phenomenological qualitative paradigm, this study utilized the PTG model to explore coping, meaning making, and positive growth as both a process and outcome. Four core themes emerged for the process of posttraumatic growth: (a) separation, loss, enslavement and other dehumanizing experiences; (b) distress and psychological responses to trauma; (c) methods of coping used to manage debilitating distress; and (d) process of healing and meaning making. Five core themes emerged for the outcome of posttraumatic growth: (a) gratitude and greater appreciation of life; (b) new priorities and goals; (c) importance of family and interpersonal relationships; (d) increased personal strength; and (e) effective leadership. Overall, principal findings in this study highlighted the importance of self-disclosure, hard work, hope, optimism, and education as a foundation to recovery and growth, as well as community activism and the continued pursuit to fulfill their survivor's mission (Herman, 1992). These factors greatly supported participants in their process of PTG and gave them profound life purpose and meaning. Theoretical, societal, and clinical implications of findings as well as future directions are discussed. </p>

<p> This study examined the application of experiential avoidance to understanding anger, a universal emotion that is not presently well-understood despite its pervasiveness in both clinical symptomatology and general experience. Theories including the anger avoidance model (Gardner &amp; Moore, 2008) and the cognitive-neoassociationistic perspective (Berkowitz, 1983) proposed that anger is related to avoidant behaviors and lack of control. Experiential avoidance (EA), a concept introduced in Relational Frame Theory (Hayes, 2004b), describes the avoidance of unpleasant thoughts and negative emotional experiences. Historically, EA has primarily been used to examine anxiety, but may also present a valuable theoretical approach to other emotional experiences, including anger. </p><p> To clarify the link between experiential avoidance and anger, correlations between subjects' scores on subtypes of anger and levels of experiential avoidance were examined. A non-clinical sample of 215 graduate students completed the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2) and the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II). Scores were analyzed for correlations between levels of experiential avoidance and types of anger experiences. Results suggest that experiential avoidance is related to higher levels of trait anger, increased inward expressions of anger, and decreased control over anger experiences. Implications for research, theory, and clinical approaches to anger and aggression are discussed.</p>

<p> Objectives: Study was designed to explore questions examining relational satisfaction in long-term non-monogamous heterosexual couples in comparison to relational satisfaction in long-term sexually monogamous heterosexual couples, as well as gain insight into whom those involved in non-monogamous relationships disclose to and the potential stigma felt by this disclosure. Demographic variables were also explored to see if any prediction of marital satisfaction occurred. </p><p> Methods: Both long-term sexually monogamous and long-term sexually non-monogamous participants responded to a secure online survey. The survey consisted of informed consent, inclusion criteria, ENRICH marital satisfaction scale (Fowers and Olson 1993) items, and open-ended questions for items not assessed by the ENRICH scale alone. </p><p> Results: After checking for univariate normality and outliers and assessing missing value patterns, results show that both the Marital Satisfaction and Idealistic Distortion scales were reliable. The findings in the study revealed that relationship type did not have a significant impact on marital satisfaction or idealistic distortion, with similar levels of satisfaction and idealistic distortion in both monogamous and non-monogamous couples. The results also demonstrated, through linear regression for demographic variables, that only income level significantly predicted marital satisfaction. After qualitative data was coded, there were many themes found within both monogamous and non-monogamous couples. </p><p> Conclusions: Data supports the original hypothesis that there was very little difference in marital satisfaction between monogamous and non-monogamous heterosexual couples. With these results, non-monogamy is a more viable relationship option than previously recognized for couples that are interested, and it is necessary to create models to work with these couples. Developing further research within this population specifically is also necessary for the future. </p>

<p> The intention of this exploratory research is to shed light on the psychological impact of interactions with digital technology, which is increasingly pervasive in our culture. This dissertation asks what psychological phenomena are generated by human interactions with digital technology, in general, and with complex recommendation systems, in particular. Nondigital technology is contrasted with digital technology, which achieves new levels of interactivity through its artificial and virtual capabilities. It is proposed that the degree of increased interactivity made possible by digital technology crosses a threshold impacting the psyche in new ways. </p><p> A theoretical framework for understanding human-digital technology interactions is introduced and developed. The psyche is conceptualized as evolutionarily and biologically based, functioning symbolically and emotionally both consciously and unconsciously. Ramifications of this conceptualization are explored in the context of interactions with digital/algorithmic technology, using recommendation systems as illustrations. </p><p> The theoretical investigation concludes that psyche-digital technology interactions are new phenomena. Psychic processes&mdash;by nature evolutionarily and biologically symbolic and largely unconscious&mdash;interact with nonbiological digital/algorithmic technology. Because of the incongruence of value systems between biological phenomena and digital/algorithmic logic, unconscious psychic processes resulting from interactions between <i> the biological feeling psyche and nonbiological digital technology</i> are likely to significantly impact both psychic development of individuals, in the short term, and quite possibly the human species at large, in the long term. </p><p> The method of exploratory research is interpretive and theoretically oriented, while employing a depth psychological lens. Contemporary depth psychology is described as an integrative field that is receptive to insights from all other fields; it considers unconscious phenomena as vital to human psychological makeup. This study brings together depth psychological and neurobiological theory; and is grounded in the work of depth psychologist Erich Neumann, who describes biological-evolutionary-symbolic unconscious and conscious dynamics of the psyche. </p><p> As background, social psychology's discoveries of unconscious social behaviors triggered by interacting with new media are highlighted as fundamental in interactions with computing technology. From a depth psychological point of view, conscious and unconscious relationships to and with technology are explored historically as precursors to interactions with digital technology. </p><p> Keywords: human-computer interactions, depth psychology, big data, recommendation systems, digital technology, emotions, affect, feeling, neurobiology, Carl Jung, Erich Neumann.</p>

<p> Retrospective emotional frequency appraisals are often used in clinical assessment measures, but their suitability for use with children has not been well studied. The aims of this project were to (a) examine whether items that use retrospective frequency structures gather more or less information than items that do not use such structures and (b) examine whether the information gathered by such items differs across children's ages. <i>Method</i>. Data were gathered from 9- to 12-year-old girls who participated in a larger study of a depression treatment protocol. Two sets of five pairs of items were sampled from two children's depression measures. The item pairs contained one item from each measure. One set of item pairs was matched for content and the use of retrospective frequency structures. The other set was matched for content only. <i>Results</i>. For the first research question, information curves for the two item sets were generated using Samejima's (1969) Graded Response Model (GRM). Visual analyses of the information curves provided inconclusive results as to whether the presence of retrospective frequency structures is associated with differences in item information levels. The second research question was conducted in two parts. For both, only data from the 9- and 12-year-old participants were analyzed. In the first part, confirmatory factor analysis was used to analyze measurement invariance across the two groups' responses. Theses analyses showed signs of measurement non-invariance in both item sets. The second part of the analyses was conducted by generating separate GRM information curves for the two age groups and conducting visual analyses of the information curves. These analyses showed that the model which had been used throughout the remainder of the study did not fit the 9-year-old group well. They also showed that the 12-year-old group's information curves varied more in height across measures and item sets than did the 9-year-old group's curves. <i>Discussion</i>. Although the findings failed to shed light on the effects of retrospective frequency structures on children's responding, they highlighted potential differences between the 9- and 12-year-old groups' factor structures and indicated that the 9-year-olds displayed decreased sensitivity to differences in item structure.</p>

<p> People with intellectual disability have historically been excluded from the benefits of psychotherapy, despite the higher incidence of mental illness, in general, and PTSD, in particular, in this population. It had been thought that intellectual disability precluded the cognitive and emotional ability required to participate in therapy. A growing body of literature is reporting successful application of a number of these therapies, established as empirically effective for the general population, with people with intellectual disability. Typically, minor modifications are required. Criticism continues, now based on the problem of using therapies with a population for which they have not been empirically established as effective. The current study contributes to the empirical process of establishing effectiveness of a specific trauma therapy for people with intellectual disability. It applies the EMDR therapy to six participants in a multiple-baseline, ABA, time-series experiment design. EMDR has previously been used with people with intellectual disability, reporting improved symptoms and functioning for the more than 35 cases published. For the current study, the participants were all diagnosed with PTSD and other diagnoses reflecting the emotional distress associated with histories of multi- and poly-traumatization, beginning at an early age. They received weekly assessments on multiple measures: self-report, physiological, observer ratings, and continuous actigraph recordings. Each participated for a minimum of 60 weeks, which included: an A phase, the Baseline; a B phase, the Intervention; and, a second A phase, Maintenance. After a Hiatus of six weeks, participants returned for Follow-up testing. The EMDR therapy was delivered during the Intervention phase, only. All participants lost the diagnosis of PTSD and showed emotional and functional improvement on a number of measures. The self-report measures produced the most descriptive time-series data, providing indication of change in a number of dimensions, visually interpretable from graphs of the data, included in this document. Linear regression analyses support visual analysis. Additional research in using the EMDR therapy with people with intellectual disability is recommended, with the purpose of establishing it as appropriate for use with this population. Limitations of the study are addressed. </p>

<p> This study examines a relatively new area of investigation: the relationship between attachment theory (Bowlby, 1973, 1980, 1982) and transformational leadership theory. Using self-report surveys and controlling for demographic variables, California community college chief executive officers&rsquo; (CEOs) attachment styles and transformational leadership characteristics are measured and the potential relationship between them examined (N=74). The two measures used are Kouzes and Posner&rsquo;s (2002a) Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) and Brennan, Clark, and Shaver&rsquo;s (1998) Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR). </p><p> No significant correlation between attachment scores and the demographic variables was found in the study. Three moderate strength positive correlations were found between LPI scores and the demographic variables: between age and the LPI <i>Enable Others to Act</i> score, between female CEOs and the LPI <i>Challenge the Process</i> score, and between female CEOs and the LPI total score. The analysis demonstrated moderate correlations between the two attachment scales and the five transformational leadership characteristics as well as the LPI total score, with all 12 resulting correlations being negative and significant at the <i>p</i> &lt;.05 level both before and after controlling for demographic variables.</p><p> The moderate correlation found in this study between more securely attached leaders and their self-assessed transformational leadership style found provides insight into the complex fields of leadership study and personality theory. Implications include the possibility of incorporating attachment and leadership measures into employee selection to better match desired styles to the organization&rsquo;s needs. Individual leaders may also be able to leverage the relationship explored in this study to further their personal leadership development.</p>