<p> Knowing the perceptions of college students regarding their safety on campus from an active school shooter can be valuable when campus police and security, college safety boards, and other members of the college community are designing policies and emergency plans to protect the college. However, few studies have been conducted to examine perceptions of students regarding fear of a school shooter on a university campus. To address this gap in the literature, this particular study was conducted to specifically inspect the perceptions of students regarding fear of a school shooter on a university campus in Missouri. This study resulted in a record of how the fear of a school shooter is perceived by college students from a variety of viewpoints. A qualitative, grounded theory design was selected for this study and was framed through the perspective of values theory and human and campus ecology theories. Interviews with 25 university students in Missouri were conducted. Data analysis resulted in the emergence of four major themes: (a) contentment, (b) partnership, (c) communication, and (d) maintenance. Overall, students in this study felt a great degree of contentment and desired to reduce their fear of an active shooter by creating a partnership with campus police, communicating better, and rejecting stricter gun laws.</p>

<p> Institutions of higher education, states, and government agencies are seeking avenues for increasing access, improving learning outcomes, and increasing student retention. The majority of chief academic officers polled indicate that online learning is key to the growth of their institutions, while simultaneously indicating concern that online learners are less likely to succeed and persist. A common construct for how institutions can facilitate student success and persistence is the notion of engagement. Since 2000, campuses have relied upon the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) to guide institutional policies and practices supporting student success. The research on the applicability of the NSSE to online learning is scarce. This ex post facto quantitative study explored the relationship between scores on the ten NSSE Engagement Indicators and two widely used measures of student success: grade point average (GPA) and persistence. </p><p> The study sample comprised students from five public state institutions that had administered the NSSE during the 2013 and 2014 cycles. Statistical tests were employed to examine potential differences between online and non-online learners. A small significant difference in GPA was discovered, with online learners having a higher average GPA than non-online counterparts. There was no significant difference in rates of persistence between the groups. Regression analyses revealed no statistically significant relationship between Engagement Indicator scores and either GPA or persistence. </p><p> The study findings did not support assertions in the field that online learners are less likely to succeed than non-online learners. The findings were contrary to previous research on the role of engagement in the equation of student success and persistence. Differences in NSSE scores between online learners and non-online learners offered evidence of how those groups may be distinct. The study suggests the need for delineating NSSE results based upon different groups of students, and brings into question the applicability of the engagement construct for online learners. The need to clearly and consistently define &ldquo;online&rdquo; becomes a critical aspect of the discussion. Recommendations for policy and practice are offered, including the importance of addressing attrition bias, and a caution on making inferential interpretations with descriptive statistics from a survey.</p>

<p> As the gap between the haves and have-nots widens, the call for reform in higher education in the United States intensifies. Policy actors, philanthropists, and academics from across the political spectrum work on various policy solutions, creating a policy environment that is complex and often contentious. Incrementalists claim that major policy reform is unlikely since unknown variables and inexplicable events can stall or dismantle policy initiatives. In such environments, policy entrepreneurs&mdash;those individuals who advocate for policy innovation, work for change, and help shape policy solutions from within and without government&mdash;try to break through the barriers of incremental politics. As important as this role is to the influencing and structuring of higher educational policy, it has not yet been explored. This study fills this gap in the extant literature by cataloging the characteristics and skills that enable higher education policy entrepreneurs at the state and national levels to persevere and accomplish sustainable and innovative higher education reforms over time.</p><p> The study employed a descriptive, revelatory, single-case study research design (Yin, 1994) interpreted from the postpositivist paradigm (Creswell, 2007). The major source of data, drawn from 23 interviews with policy entrepreneurs from across the United States, was triangulated with document reviews and a multi-level coding strategy. Then the data were framed by the research questions and juxtaposed against nine propositions extracted from the extant literature to derive the study findings.</p><p> The policy entrepreneurs in this study are creative political leaders with a passion for improving educational opportunity. They are adaptable, pragmatic on details of policy shaping, and use the means available to them to influence. Policy entrepreneurs don&rsquo;t work in isolation; rather, they are network dependent. They value collaboration and seek to develop relationships and create opportunities to advocate for policy innovations that benefit students before institutions or organizations, taking calculated risks with interminable patience, and making sacrifices for their cause. They have learned to listen, compromise, reach across the aisle, strategize, and recognize windows of opportunity. They work hard to build credibility and trust. Workplace mentorships and peer relationships are a major source of their learning and development.</p>

<p> The low employment rates of individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) are a major concern. In 2011 only 34% of adults with ID were employed compared to 76% of adults without disabilities (Siperstein, Parker, &amp; Drascher, 2013). Higher educational attainment is associated with higher employment rates for students with ID (Smith, Grigal, &amp; Sulewski, 2013). postsecondary education has been shown to increase employment (Carnevale, Rose, &amp; Cheah, 2013). Increasingly postsecondary education is becoming an option for individuals with ID. </p><p> This study examines the effect of postsecondary education on employment and earnings for individuals with ID and the effect of state variation on those outcomes. Research hypotheses were developed from Human Capital and Social Capital Theories. </p><p> This dissertation employed secondary data analysis of the Rehabilitation Services Administration&rsquo;s RSA 911 from 2008 through 2013 to examine the effect of postsecondary education on employment for individuals served by state Vocational Rehabilitation Service Agencies. The RSA 911 includes variables on attendance of postsecondary education, employment outcomes, earnings, as well as individual and demographic information. Additional economic and state level demographic and policy variables were added to the dataset. Multi-level modeling techniques were used to understand state variation, such as various economic and programmatic features that influence outcomes. Those outcomes for those individuals with ID who had postsecondary education were compared to those who did not. </p><p> This study found postsecondary education improves odds of employment, increases weekly earnings, and decreases reliance on SSI benefits for individuals with ID. In addition, postsecondary education increases their odds of obtaining employment in positions not typically held by individuals with ID. Gender, race, cost of services, and the receipt of Medicaid moderate these results, but when all these factors are included the results are that postsecondary education increases the odds of employment more than twice that of an individual with ID without postsecondary education. </p><p> This research provides greater understanding of the effects of postsecondary education for individuals with ID and its effect on employment and earnings. This research informs policy makers by examining ways to increase employment and earnings for individuals with ID through postsecondary education.</p>

<p> Bill Clinton proffered a plan for student loans as he was running for president: a direct loan system with repayments tied to income and collected by the Internal Revenue Service. Since that time, student loan policy continued to struggle with the dichotomy of the bank based lending system and the direct loan system, until President Obama ended new federal student loan originations in the bank based system entirely in 2010. The actions of President George W Bush&rsquo;s administration in between these two Democratic administrations also played a role in this evolution of student lending. How and why did these Presidents take these policy actions and what does that tell us about student loan policymaking within the executive branch? This dissertation employs a case study methodology to explore whether frameworks of policymaking theory may offer insights into student loan policymaking across these three administrations. </p>

<p> Freshmen at baccalaureate-granting institutions cite being able to secure a more attractive job and earn a higher income among the most important factors that influenced their decision to pursue a college or university education. Indeed, higher education has been cast as a reliable on-ramp to the American Dream, a mechanism for reducing income inequality, and a key to enhancing economic competitiveness and growth of states and the nation. These benefits have been emphasized by a chorus of individuals calling for dramatically increasing college degree attainment levels in the United States (U.S.). Yet to what extent and how consistently has higher education delivered these trumpeted outcomes for individuals, states, and the nation? </p><p> U.S. Census American Community Survey microdata and typical education requirements of occupations published by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics were utilized to quantitatively analyze employment outcomes of college graduates. A special focus was placed on the incidence of malemployment (the phenomenon of college graduates working in occupations that do not require a college degree), relationships between undergraduate degree fields and labor market outcomes, and variations across states in the employment outcomes of college graduates. </p><p> The benefits of higher education for individuals and states were found to be highly uneven. Analyses revealed that approximately 31% of adults in the labor force with a bachelor&rsquo;s degree or higher are malemployed, a rate that varies by undergraduate degree field, educational attainment, race/ethnicity, and age. College earnings premiums generally are far lower for malemployed individuals than for graduates who have secured college-level occupations, and they vary dramatically by undergraduate degree field and state. </p><p> Myths about higher education and the labor market were dispelled, such as the notion that malemployment affects only recent graduates and that there generally is an insufficient supply of STEM graduates. The principal propositions of the national attainment agenda were evaluated in light of the study&rsquo;s findings, and a new framework for that agenda was offered, including a greater focus on the traded sector of the economy, a shift from state leadership to a state/federal partnership, and a suggestion for attainment agenda proponents to embrace a learning quality agenda.</p>

<p> President Barak Obama set a national agenda to increase the number of higher education degrees completed in the United States. Moore, Shulock, and Jensen reported that the U.S. is projected to produce 48 million new undergraduates between the years 2005 to 2025. Additionally. Moore, Shulock, and Jensen reported that due to their population, California Community Colleges have a significant role in producing baccalaureate degrees than any other state. However, California projections have shown a shortfall of 1 million college graduates by the year 2025. One strategy for addressing this shortfall is improving the transfer pathways for community college students. The Student Transfer Achievement Reform (STAR) Act provided community college students in California with a clearer path towards transfer with the caveat of completing a newly established associate degree for transfer. Implementation of the STAR Act coerced California Community Colleges into adopting a standard curriculum model for transfer degrees. </p><p> This quantitative study used within-subject ANCOVAs to analyze a multi-year period of degree completion and transfer data to determine if STAR Act significantly impacted community college outcomes. Program awards and CSU transfer were dependent variables used to statistically analyze the impact of the STAR Act on community colleges. Median county income, college size, regional college location, and the number of transfer degrees offered were grouping variables used to help determine if the STAR Act impacted all colleges or only colleges with certain institutional demographics. </p><p> Institutional Theory was used to contextualize the impact of the STAR Act on community college degree completion and transfer rates. DiMaggio and Powell identified three categories of conformity within institutional theory: normative conformity, mimic conformity, and coercive conformity. Each category aligns the action of conforming to either norms, values, or ideologies. </p><p> Implications for this study address the role state legislation and individuality of community colleges in education reform. Recommendations for research and practice propose that normative and coercive attributes of conformity support significant institutional changes. Community colleges are encouraged to incorporate normative and coercive standards to support new initiatives and programs effectively. At the same time, community colleges must embrace individuality and limit mimic conformity.</p><p>

<p> This study explores the relationship between state and federal funding policies and the ability of minority-serving institutions (MSIs) to support low-income and minority students. The way US public higher education is financed has changed dramatically since the Great Recession. State appropriations to institutions have declined (SHEEO, 2017), tuition increases have dramatically outpaced growth in household income (College Board, 2016a) and state financial aid has drifted from need-based to merit-based (College Board, 2016b). Many wonder how this policy environment is impacting low-income and minority students and the institutions that serve them. MSIs have risen to the forefront of institutions committed to serving these students, and more should be known about how these institutions are affected by the current fiscal policy environment. </p><p> The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between finance policies and the ability of MSIs to serve their students. Case study methodology was used to provide an in-depth analysis of how three campuses in New Mexico respond to state and federal finance policies and shifting revenue streams, and how these responses impact students. The three campuses include one Native American-serving Nontribal Institution that is a community college, and two Hispanic-Serving Institutions&mdash;a community college and a regional comprehensive university. These campuses share similar geographic and student characteristics, but are funded through different finance polices. The findings suggest that: local appropriations play a critical role in the fiscal stability of community colleges in New Mexico; state funding favors well-resourced institutions and students; and institutional leaders perceive federal funding as providing the most support for low-income student success. This study also reveals that finance policies in the state are not aligned to their full potential for increasing degree attainment.</p><p>

<p> The purpose of this study was to examine the ways in which business-led advocacy coalitions are developed, used, and maintained to advance higher education as a state budgetary priority; policy participants&rsquo; perceptions of the effectiveness of these coalitions in the state budget process, and factors that policy participants believe impede or facilitate business-led coalition advocacy on behalf of public higher education. To address these research questions, I employed a thematic analysis of qualitative data derived from interviews with policy participants and an analysis of documents in two states. </p><p> Themes garnered from the data indicated that the coalitions arose as the result of state economic downturns. The coalitions established and advanced public agendas that linked state needs, higher education reform, and increased funding for higher education. Coalition leaders maintained these efforts by combining long- and short-term goals, keeping stakeholders abreast of their progress, and celebrating successes. Policy participants perceived the coalitions to be effective because of the credibility they derived from their independence, economic understanding, and leadership experience. The effectiveness of coalitions was enhanced through access to policymakers, experienced and respected staff, and a far-reaching vision for higher education. Coalition advocacy was facilitated by higher education leaders&rsquo; dedication to improved campus performance, the identification of a cadre of business leaders who understand and believe in the purposes of public higher education, and continuous communication between business leaders and higher education officials. Despite these efforts, many policy participants stated that budgetary constraints still play a major role in determining funding levels. </p><p> The findings of the study signified that business-led advocacy coalitions can have a strong voice in making public higher education a state priority, but rely on a group of business leaders who believe in higher education, as well as a well-connected, experienced coalition staff that advances the coalition&rsquo;s agenda. This study is relevant to higher education and political science because it adds to existing knowledge of the process in state higher education appropriations, provides clarity to the state-level political relationship between business and higher education, and offers new information on the role of state-level business coalition advocacy in higher education policy.</p>

<p> The language and communication skills of foreign students have long been a concern in U.S. universities. The majority of U.S. universities require foreign students for whom English is not their native language to take English language proficiency tests such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) as part of admission requirements. Some universities have included interventions to increase the success of Chinese students against their struggle to understand English course content. One such program is the Gateway to Successful Tomorrow Bilingual Degree Program (GST). The gap to be addressed on this study was that the effectiveness of GST has not been formally evaluated among foreign students particularly overseas Chinese students studying at U.S. universities. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the GST among overseas Chinese students studying at U.S. universities as measured through students&rsquo; grade point averages (GPA) and TOEFL scores. The theoretical framework that guided this study was the Vygotsky&rsquo;s sociocultural theory. The quantitative study used a causal comparative design to gather quantitative data from student achievement records and TOEFL scores. Pearson&rsquo;s correlation analysis and analysis of variance were conducted to predict if underlying relationships exist among variables. Key findings of the analyses showed that GST students had a significantly higher GPA than non-GST student. However, results also indicated that there was no evidence that the GST program significantly improved TOEFL scores. The GST program had an overall positive impact on the international Chinese students&rsquo; academic performance and with continued research international students stand to gain even more from this program. </p><p>