We present an investigation into the environments of quasars with respect to galaxy clus- ters, and environment evolution with redshift and luminosity. The positions of quasars with respect to clusters have been studied using cluster and quasar catalogues available, covering the redshift range 0.2 < z < 1.2. The 2D projected separations and the 3D separations have been found and the orientation of the quasar with respect to the major axis of the closest cluster calculated, introducing new information to previous work. The positions of quasars with respect to clusters of galaxies will give an indication of the large scale environment of quasars and potentially clues as to which formation mechanisms are likely to dominate at various redshifts. For example, galaxy mergers are most likely to occur in galaxy group environments and will create luminous quasars. Galaxy harassment is more likely to occur on the outskirts of galaxy clusters and create lower luminosity AGN. Secular processes such as bar instability can also create AGN and are likely to be the cause of nuclear activity in isolated galaxies. The aim of this work is to study the large scale environment over a large redshift range and study the evolution as well as any change in environment with quasar luminosity and redshift. Another aim of this work is to study the orientation of a quasar with respect to a galaxy cluster. If galaxy clusters lie orientated along filaments, the position of a quasar with respect to a cluster will give an indication as to where quasars lie with respect to the filament and therefore the large scale structure. There is a deficit of quasars lying close to cluster centres for 0.4 < z < 0.8, indicating a preference for less dense environments, in agreement with previous work. Studying the separations as a function of cluster richness, there was a change in quasars lying closer to poorer clusters for z < 0.2 (Lietzen et al. 2009) to lying closer to richer clusters for 0.2 < z < 0.4, though more clusters at low redshifts will be needed to confirm this. There is no obvious relation between the orientation angle between a quasar and the major axis of the closest galaxy cluster and 2D projected separations. Using faint (Mr > −23.0 mag) and bright (Mr < −23.0 mag) quasars, there is no difference between the two magnitude samples for the 2D separations or the cluster richness, in contrast to Strand et al. (2008) who found brighter quasars lying in denser environments than dimmer quasars. These is no change with redshift (over 0 < z < 1.2) in the positions of the quasars with respect to the cluster or the cluster richness as a function of absolute quasar magnitude. There is also no preferred orientation between the quasar and the cluster major axis for bright or faint quasars. Spectra of a selection of 680 star forming galaxies, red galaxies, and AGN were taken by Luis Campusano and Ilona S¨ochting and 515 redshifts calculated. Though few of these galaxies turned out to be cluster members as was originally intended, it was possible to use these galaxies to study the environments of quasars with respect to star-forming galaxies and galaxy clusters. The objects were classified (33 classed as AGN), and star formation rates calculated and compared. Three AGN and 10 star forming galaxies lie at the same redshift (z = 0.29) as three galaxy clusters. The three galaxy clusters have the same orientation angle and may be part of a filament along with the star forming galaxies and AGN. Further study will investigate the relation between AGN positions and filaments of structure. A sample of quasar spectra taken by Lutz Haberzettl using Hectospec on the MMT were taken to increase the number of quasars used in this study. However, when studying the spectra, a number of high redshift quasars showed evidence of ultra-strong UV Feii emission in their spectra. The redshifts of these quasars were too high to be included in the main body of the study. However, a significantly large number of ultra-strong UV Feii emitting quasars have been found in the direction of three LQGs in the redshift range 1.1 < z < 1.6, including the Clowes-Campusano Large Quasar Group (CCLQG). Ly� fluorescence can increase the UV Feii emission. However, Ly� emission from other quasars was found to be negligible compared to emission from the quasar’s central source. Though there has been no previous indication that the LQG environment is unique, the high level of iron emission may indicate a difference in environment. Plans for future work based on these results are outlined.

Massive stars have very strong stellar winds which interact with their environment. This work has involved the study of these interactive winds at radio and other wavelengths. Radio observations have been made of the massive runaway star BD+43◦ 3654 and its bow shock which is interacting with the inter-stellar medium. These observations, together with archive data at other wavelengths, have revealed stratified dust and turbulent gas in this interaction zone. Further radio studies have been undertaken of the interaction zones of the colliding winds of massive binary systems. Observations of the colliding wind binary WR 147 at 5GHz have revealed a curved collision zone, suggestive of simple interactive models. Measurements of the flux from the Wolf-Rayet component of this massive binary system has allowed a mass-loss rate to be derived and though the companion O-star is not detected, an upper flux limit has allowed upper limits on the mass-loss rate and limits on the terminal velocity to be inferred. Also revealed is a curious ’bridge’ feature previously observed in WR 147 which occurs between the two binary components. One mechanism is suggested to explain this anomalous feature, the ionising flux of one binary component, the O-star, may be ionising the wind of the other, the WR component. Modelling of the ionisation structure of the stellar winds has been undertaken to verify that this may be occurring. Radio observations of massive stars made at low-frequency have produced detections of WR 147 and the brighter colliding wind binary, WR 146. These detections have allowed modelling of the non-thermal emission in order to deduce where the non-thermal absorption turn-over occurs in these systems. The resultant modelling has illustrated that these colliding wind regions are complex, with multiple absorption regions best describing their nature.

This thesis is about an investigation into the formation of spheroidal type galaxies. The investigation began with modelling studies of early-type galaxies and spiral bulges (SBs). From galaxy formation modelling studies led by experiments with a sample galaxy, some results were obtained; nonsolar abundance ratios in Elliptical galaxies (Es) achieved better fits between model and data than solar abundance ratios. For both early-type and late-type galaxies, best fits with non-solar abundance ratios were more constrained than in the solar abundance ratio case. A strong link between star formation histories and the supernova Ia rate for the early and late-type galaxies was shown. The model code itself was tested by way of pseudo galaxy experiments, and shown to reliably reproduce model parameters. In the topic area of galaxy formation, regions of spectra particularly sensitive to a galaxy's age and metallicity were measured as equivalent widths and then calibrated to the common scale of the Lick Indices. The Lick Indices were used in deriving all key results throughout the thesis. The modelled sample of galaxies from Proctor & Sansom (2002) lacked data on low velocity dispersion (a) galaxies for line strengths versus kinematics correlations. In regards to low a galaxies, Low Luminosity Es (LLE5) were considered to be likely candidates. Long-slit spectra of a sample of 12 LLEs, taken at the European Southern Observatory New Technology Telescope, were sub-selected for their low velocity dispersions. The spectra of 10 of these LLEs were successfully reduced. Line strengths and kinematics were measured. The Lick Indices of these LLEs were correlated with velocity dispersion (a), alongside the previously modelled companion data set. Ages and metallicities of the LLEs were estimated. From these results, the LLEs were found to have significant correlations of line strength versus a with SBs. However, the LLEs do not appear to be younger than SBs, but younger than Es. The LLEs seem to consist of a low metallicity group (possibly misclassified dwarf spheroidal galaxies) and a high metallicity group. Future possible work that may uncover which models of galaxy formation for high and low metallicity LLEs these results support is suggested.

Solar flares release an enormous amount of energy (up to 10^32 erg) which is transported through the Sun`s atmosphere until it is deposited in the chromosphere, resulting in a broadband enhancements to the solar radiative output. The bulk of the flare radiative output originates from the chromosphere. Despite the importance of the chromosphere we do not yet have a comprehensive understanding of the radiation produced there following flare energy deposition, and the diagnostic potential of radiation from this layer of the atmosphere has not been fully exploited. Additionally, there is evidence that the standard model of flare energy transport via non-thermal electron beams might not be the complete scenario. Chromospheric radiation will be crucial in discriminating between the standard model and alternative energy transport mechanisms. Through near-UV spectroscopy, optical imaging, and radiation hydrodynamic modelling using both the electron beam model and energy transport via Alfven waves, the chromospheric response to flare energy input was investigated. One of the first detailed analyses of the response of the Mg II h &amp; k spectral lines to flare energy input is presented. These are strong, optically thick, lines formed in multiple locations of the chromosphere. In addition to showing a strong intensity enhancement, the lines were redshifted, showed a blue wing asymmetry in the most intense sources, and were substantially broadened. The lines were also single peaked during the flare, in contrast to their double peaked, centrally-reversed structure in the non-flaring Sun. Despite this, the analysis suggested they remained optically thick during the flare. Using snapshots from radiation hydrodynamic flare simulations in combination with a radiation transfer code capable of modelling partial redistribution effects, the Mg II h &amp; k line formation properties during flares were analysed. These simulations showed the same qualitative behaviour as observations, but instead of being single peaked they contained a shallow central reversal. Additionally the lines were too narrow, suggesting the lower chromosphere was too cool in the simulations. Line core Doppler shifts were well-correlated with atmospheric velocity. The lines were formed lower than in the quiet Sun, with source functions (and therefore emergent intensities) that were more strongly coupled to the Planck function during the flare - that is, they reflected the local conditions to a greater degree. While the lines did indeed remain optically thick during the flare, some optically thin contributions resulted in asymmetries. However, the strongest blue wing asymmetries were the result of a stationary component to the line profile when the line core was redshifted. Optical continuum enhancements are amongst the strongest emission during solar flares, though are relatively rare to observe. Understanding the emission mechanism responsible is important for models of flare energy transport, but there remains debate as to the dominant mechanism. This emission may originate from the heated photosphere, or from an overionised region of the chromosphere. Imaging in three optical passbands during a strong flare was used to analyse the temperature enhancement and luminosity of optical sources were under the assumption of two simple models. This was in an effort to determine the most likely emission mechanism. The models were a photospheric (blackbody) model and a chromospheric model with enhanced recombination radiation. Observations were most consistent with the photospheric origin, although some evidence that both mechanisms play a role is discussed. Additionally, initial analysis of observations of a flare in which both the optical continuum and near-UV continuum were observed is presented. Finally, a radiation hydrodynamic numerical model was adapted to include flare energy transport via the dissipation of Alfven waves. Some representative simulations surveying the parameter space are discussed. Additionally, a detailed comparison is presented between a simulation using the standard model of energy transport via non-thermal electron beams, and a simulation using Alfv\'en wave dissipation. Both the hydrodynamic response is compared, as well as the radiative response of the Ca II 8542 and Mg II k-line. It was found that Alfven waves are able to sufficiently heat the chromosphere during flares, making them a viable candidate for energy transport, and that there is the potential for discriminating between energy transport models using observations of chromospheric radiation.

This thesis is an account of work carried out at the Institute for Gravitational Research (IGR), in the University of Glasgow between October 2010 and March 2014. The research presented contributes to the design of ultra-low mechanical loss suspensions for use in gravitational wave detectors and other kinds of interferometry. This thesis focuses on measuring the parameters of mechanical loss in fused silica suspensions that will limit the sensitivity of advanced gravitational wave detectors and other kinds of interferometers where fused silica suspensions are used. These investigations were carried out under the supervision of Dr Giles Hammond and Professor Sheila Rowan. Chapter 1 gives an introduction to gravitational wave astronomy and provides an insight into which astrophysical objects are able to emit gravitational radiation. The chapter goes on to describe current and future detection techniques that are used and planned in order to make the first direct detection of gravitational waves, noting some results and limits which have been achieved to date. The chapter also introduces the different noise sources that will limit the sensitivity of gravitational wave detectors. The information detailed in this chapter has all been derived from previously published literature. Chapter 2 introduces the theory of thermal noise and derives the relationship between the mechanical loss and thermal noise in fused silica suspensions via the fluctuation dissipation theorem. Discussion covers how this limits the sensitivity of a gravitational wave detector. The chapter includes the theory of loss mechanisms present in fused silica. Again the information contained in this chapter has all been derived from previously published literature. Chapter 3 contains details and results of an experiment, where the expansion coefficient of fused silica fibres was measured under varying amounts of stress. Results demonstrate that the effective thermal expansion co-efficient of a fused silica fibre can be nulled by placing the fibre under a particular level of stress. This nulling of the effective thermal expansion coefficient should lower the thermoelastic noise contribution in silica suspensions, essential for allowing second generation gravitational wave detectors to reach their target thermal noise sensitivity of below 10^{-19}m/sqrt{Hz} at 10Hz. The experimental work in this chapter was conceived by Professor James Faller with a prototype demonstrated by Dr Stuart Reid. The set-up was then revised and modified by the author and Dr Giles Hammond to achieve the results presented in this thesis. Throughout this experiment Colin Craig helped with the machining of the invar set-up and Dr Kirill Tokmakov with suspending the silica fibres placed under large amounts of stress. Experimental measurements and analysis were carried out by the author. Chapter 4 describes an experiment in which a fused silica fibre was held under tension and the harmonic violin mode losses over a range of frequencies were measured. The fibre was then cut and cantilever modes of the fibre measured. The contributions from excess losses were calculated and shown not to limit the experiment. A theoretical dilution factor was determined along with the modal strain distribution of the violin and cantilever modes from finite element analysis (FEA). The FEA was aided by Dr Rahul Kumar and Dr Alan Cumming. The data measured was then compiled with a loss model to give information about the loss contributions of fused silica such as thermoelastic loss, surface loss and weld loss. Designing of the silica pendulum system used in this experiment was helped by Russell Jones and the machining of the silica mass holders for CO2 welding was done by Steven Craig. Construction of the silica pendulum system was undertaken by Dr Giles Hammond and the author, who carried out the experimental measurements. Analysis of the data presented in this chapter was aided by Dr Matthew Pitkin who contributed a Markov Chain Monte Carlo regression fitting code. Chapter 5 repeats the above experiment; where the author used a modified fused silica fibre to measure violin mode losses. The modified silica fibre allowed loss measurements to be made at a much lower frequency than in the previous violin mode set-up. In an attempt to study the nonlinear thermoelastic loss in more detail. The stress on the silica was also varied to observe the nulling of the effective thermal expansion coefficient directly through measurements of the mechanical loss. This experiment used many of the components described in chapter 4 and so the same people are acknowledged for their contribution. Construction of the silica pendulums used was carried out by Dr Giles Hammond, Dr Kirill Tokmakov and the author. Chapter 6 focuses on measuring the mechanical loss of 20-30micron diameter fused silica fibres, for use in the Hannover AEI 10m prototype interferometer. This chapter illustrates the problems faced when trying to measure the mechanical losses of thin fibres. The mechanical loss data was then compiled with a loss and finite element model to give information about the loss contributions of fused silica such as thermoelastic, surface and weld loss in thin silica fibres. This experiment was constructed initially by Dr Stuart Reid with some of the welding being performed by Dr Kirill Tokmakov. All of the experimental measurements and analysis were the work of the author. Chapter 7 details the conclusions that can be drawn from the various experiments in previous chapters. The results will be be applicable across many areas of research where low mechanical thermal noise is required. More generally the results can be used as a basis for research that requires mechanical systems at room temperatures for example systems needed to produce stable optical cavities. A further important discovery emerging from this thesis is the ability to cancel and reverse the effective thermal expansion coefficient of fused silica by placing the silica under stress. This process allows stressed silica to be used in systems were low thermal expansion coefficient materials are needed. Thus fused silica can be used as an alternative to composite materials such as invar.

The first direct detection of gravitational waves last year was the beginning of a new field of astronomy. While we have already learned a great deal from the signals sensed by the LIGO interferometers in their first observation run, research is already underway to improve upon the sensitivity of the state of the art detectors. Novel mirror designs, new interferometer topologies and larger, more advanced detectors are all being considered as future improvements, and these topics form the focus of this thesis. A reduction in the thermal noise arising from the mirrors within gravitational wave detectors will enhance sensitivity near their most sensitive frequencies, and this can potentially be achieved through the use of waveguide mirrors employing gratings. It has been shown that the thermal noise is reduced in waveguide mirrors compared to standard dielectric mirrors whilst retaining the required reflectivity, but an open question regarding their suitability remains due to the potential for increased technical noise coupling created by the substructure. We place an upper limit on this coupling with a suspended cavity experiment, showing that this approach to the design of grating mirrors has promise. While the use of higher classical laser input initially increases interferometer sensitivity, eventually the Michelson interferometer topology employed in existing detectors reaches the standard quantum limit preventing further enhancement. Efforts are being made to test the suitability of so-called quantum non-demolition (QND) technologies able to surpass this limit, one of which involves the use of a new interferometer topology altogether. An experiment to demonstrate a reduction in quantum radiation pressure noise in a QND-compatible Sagnac speed meter topology is underway in Glasgow, and we introduce novel techniques to control this suspended, audio-band interferometer to inform the technical design of future detectors wishing to measure beyond the standard quantum limit. In particular, the problem of controlling the interferometer at low frequencies is discussed. Due to the nature of the speed meter topology, the response of the interferometer vanishes towards zero frequency, while the interferometer's noise does not. This creates a control problem at low frequencies where test mass perturbations arising from, for example, seismic and electronic noise, can lead to loss of interferometer sensitivity over the course of minutes to hours. We present a solution involving the blending of signals from different readout ports of the interferometer, facilitating measurements with almost arbitrary integration times. The longer, larger Einstein Telescope facility planned as part of the next generation of detectors will push the Michelson interferometer topology to the limit. The low frequency interferometer will utilise optomechanical interactions to enhance its sensitivity at low frequencies, and the control problems associated with this technique have not been investigated in detail. Following the approach taken in the current generation of detectors we show that the interferometer can be controlled without adversely affecting its sensitivity to gravitational waves, paving the way for a future technical design.