Public Law 95-87, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA), mandates that mined land be reclaimed in a fashion that renders the land at least as productive after mining as it was before mining. In the central Appalachian region, where prime farmland and economic development opportunities for mined land are scarce, the most practical land use choices are hayland/pasture, wildlife habitat, or forest land. Since 1977, the majority of mined land has been reclaimed as hayland/pasture or wildlife habitat, which is less expensive to reclaim than forest land, since there are no tree planting costs. As a result, there are now hundreds of thousands of hectares of grasslands and scrublands in various stages of natural succession located throughout otherwise forested mountains in the U.S. The purpose of this study is to develop a framework for understanding/calculating the economic implications of converting these reclaimed mined lands to forests under various silvicultural regimes, and to demonstrate the economic/decision-making implications of an incentive scheme on such a land use conversion. The economic feasibility of a range of land-use conversion scenarios was analyzed for both mixed hardwoods and white pine, under a set of low product prices and under a set of high product prices. Economic feasibility was based on land expectation values. Further, three types of incentive schemes were investigated: 1) lump sum payment at planting (and equivalent series of annual payments), 2) revenue incentive at harvest and 3) payment based on carbon volume. Mixed hardwood LEVs ranged from -$2416.71/ha (low prices) to $3955.72/ha (high prices). White pine LEVs ranged from -$2330.43/ha (low prices) to $3746.65/ha (high prices). A greater percentage of white pine scenarios yielded economically feasible land-use conversions than did the mixed hardwood scenarios, and it seems that a conversion to white pine forests would, for the most part, be the more appealing option. It seems that, for both mixed hardwoods and white pine, it would be in the best interests of the landowner to invest in the highest quality sites first. For a conversion to mixed hardwood forests, a low intensity level of site preparation seems economically optimal for most scenarios. For a conversion to white pine forests, a medium intensity level of site preparation seems economically optimal for most scenarios. Mixed hardwoods lump sum payments, made at the time of planting, ranged from $0/ha to $2416.71/ha (low prices). White pine lump sum payments, made at the time of planting, ranged from $0/ha to $2330.53/ha (low prices). Mixed hardwoods benefits based on an increase in revenue at harvest, ranged from $0/ha to $784449.52/ha (low prices). White pine benefits based on an increase in revenue at harvest ranged from $0/ha to $7011.48/ha (high prices). Annual mixed hardwood benefits, based on total stand carbon volume present at the end of a given year, ranged from $0/ton of carbon to $5.26/ton carbon (low prices). White pine benefits based on carbon volume ranged from $0/ton of carbon to $18.61/ton of carbon (high prices). It appears that, for white pine scenarios, there is not much difference between incentive values for lump sum payments at planting, revenue incentives at harvest, and total carbon payments over a rotation. For mixed hardwoods, however, it appears that the carbon payment incentive is by far the cheapest option of encouraging landowners to convert land. / Master of Science

Current surface mine reclamation in Appalachia involves returning the land to approximate original contour by grading the surface and planting grasses and early-successional trees. This results in a greatly altered ecosystem compared to the native forest that was there prior to mining. The reclaimed land is usually degraded economically and environmentally because mine soils are usually less productive than the native soils, and because the mined sites do not provide the same level of ecosystem services. This research addressed constraints to the return of the native ecosystem by assessing how mine spoil properties and treatments affect native tree species and soil microorganisms. A 4x2x3 factorial greenhouse experiment was used to examine the growth of one-year-old Fraxinus americana, Quercus rubra, and Liriodendron tulipifera as well as herbaceous plant occurrence and microbial biomass and activity. Three mine spoils, brown, weathered sandstone (BWS), white, unweathered sandstone (WUS), and gray, unweathered shale (GUH) were compared with undisturbed forest topsoil (UFT) to determine their suitability for tree growth. Half of each of the four media was inoculated with a 2.5-cm layer of topsoil. BWS was the optimal spoil material for the growth of F. americana, Q. rubra and microbial populations. Foliar nutrient analysis indicated that L. tulipifera was highly dependent on nutrient levels and was unable to grow well on any of the spoil types due to deficiencies. Inoculation with topsoil increased tree growth on the GUH spoil, and increased microbial activity and presence of herbaceous plants across all growth media. The field study was used to determine what spoil properties most influenced three-year-old Quercus alba growth. This information was used to test a mine quality classification model. Northeast facing sites with sandy spoils high in nutrients, moderate in pH, and high in microbial populations were optimal for tree growth. These variables explained 52% of the variation in tree growth. Tree growth was also highly correlated with tree foliar nutrient levels, further suggesting that tree growth was influenced by spoil nutrients. Microbial biomass and dehydrogenase production were also regressed against soil properties and were dependant on a moderate pH, high nitrogen levels, and low salt content. These variables explained 53% of the variability in microbial biomass and 50% of the variability in enzyme production. These studies suggest that tree growth and soil microbial populations are closely linked, and both are affected by mine spoil properties. During mined land reclamation, mine spoils conducive to tree growth should be selected if return of the native ecosystem is the reclamation goal. / Master of Science

This interdisciplinary project offers new insights into the reclamation history of two of the most controversial and contaminated sites in Canadian history: the Sydney tar ponds and coke ovens and the Athabasca oil sands. It argues that Canada’s natural resource-dependent economy, combined with jurisdictional uncertainty, created a hesitant, fragmentary site cleanup regime, one that left room for different ideas about landscapes to shape and even distort reclamation’s goals and processes. In the absence of substantive reclamation standards and legislation, researchers struggled to accommodate the unique challenges of the oil sands during the 1960s and 1970s. Ambitious goals for reclamation faltered, and even the most successful examples of oil sands reclamation differed significantly from the pre-extraction environment; reclamation was not restoration. Planners envisioned transforming northeastern Alberta into a managed wilderness and recreation nirvana, but few of these plans were realised. The Sydney tar ponds experience suggests that truly successful reclamation cannot exist unless past injustices are fully acknowledged, reparations made, and a more complete narrative of contamination and reclamation constructed through open deliberation. Reclamation, after all, does not repair history; nor can it erase the past. Effective oil sands reclamation, then, requires a reconsideration of the site’s past and an acknowledgement of the perpetuated vulnerabilities and injustices wrought by development and reclamation.

Degree of Master of Forestry (Conservation Ecology) / Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / Full text to be digitised and attached to bibliographic record. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates the use of top-soiling, irrigation and translocating indigenous plants to facilitate the cost-effective return of a mined landscape to its former land-use (small stock farming) in an arid winter rainfall Succulent Karoo shrub land biome on the West Coast of South Africa. Effects of topsoil stockpiling and subsoil mineral concentration on soil fertility and chemistry were investigated, as soils are likely to determine rates of vegetation recovery on post-mined areas. Results of a radish bioassay show that stockpiling topsoil and mineral concentration subsoil decreased soil fertility. Mineral concentration decreased phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, carbon and nitrogen levels significantly relative to other soil treatments. Sodium in freshly deposited tailings was at potentially toxic levels and significantly higher than for all other soil treatments. Spreading of stockpiled topsoil over tailings may ameliorate harsh conditions created by mineral separation. Translocation of plants from pre-mined to post-mined areas was carried out on a trial basis in an effort to facilitate the return of natural vegetation and processes to strip-mined landscapes. Five local indigenous plant species: Asparagus spp., Ruschia versicolor, Othonna cylindrica, Lampranthus suavissimus and Zygophyllum morgsana were planted into multi-species clumps in a replicated experiment. Variables examined in the translocation trial included the effects of plant origin, soil treatment and/or irrigation on plant survival and establishment. The proportion of O. cylindrica transplants surviving for 15 months was greater than for other species. Whole plants survived better than salvaged plants, and Asparagus spp., R. versicolor, L. suavissimus and Z. morgsana survived better on stockpiled topsoil spread over tailings than on tailings alone. Irrigation had no consistent effect across species and treatment replicates. Salvaged-plant clumps were significantly larger than whole-plant clumps at planting, however, this effect was not observed after 12 months, indicating that whole-plant clumps grew faster than salvaged-plant clumps. The evergreen, leaf succulent shrubs O. cylindrica, L. suavissimus and R. versicolor appeared to be most suitable for large-scale translocation at Namakwa Sands. The return of biodiversity and changes in soil quality 15 months after translocation trials began were compared for combinations of top-soiling, irrigation, plant translocation and unmodified tailings. Irrigation may reduce biodiversity and seedling densities. Over a 15-month period following back filling and topsoil spreading, sodium, potassium and calcium appeared to return to levels observed for undisturbed soils. Magnesium remains at levels lower than in pre-mined soil conditions. Soil conditions may be more conducive to plant establishment and rehabilitation after back-filling of tailings and topsoil spreading. Electrical resistance increased over time indicating a reduction of free salts and salinity on rehabilitation sites. Phosphorus did not return to pre-disturbance levels, and carbon remained below pre-mining levels for at least 15 months after rehabilitation began, remaining a potential limiting factor in rehabilitation. Each rehabilitation technique that a mine employs has costs and benefits, and it is increasingly important that insights from ecology and economics are coupled if restoration efforts are going to succeed. A review of valuation systems indicates that Discounted Cash Flow Techniques (DCF) are suitable for valuation of rehabilitation operations. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die gebruik van bogrond, besproeiing en die oorplanting van inheemse plante om die koste-effektiewe rehabilitasie van 'n stroopmynlandskap in die droë, winter reënval streek, Vetplant Karoo aan die Weskus van Suid-Afrika, wat vroeër gebruik is vir kleinvee boerdery, te bespoedig Die uitwerking van bogrondopberging en minerale konsentrasie op vrugbaarheid en chemise komposisie van grond is ondersoek, aangesien dié gronde gewoonlik die herstelspoed van plantegroei op 'n ou myn terein bepaal. Uitslae van radys proewe toon dat berging van bogrond en minerale konsentrasie van die onderliggende grond vrugbaarheid van grond laat afneem. Mynaktiwiteite en die minerale konsentrasie lei tot 'n betekenisvolle verlies aan fosfaat, kalium, kalsium, magnesium, koolstof en stikstof as die geval met ander bedrywighede. Die vlak van natrium in oorgeblywende sand na die minerale ekstraksie is hoogs giftig en is veel hoër as na ander bedrywighede. Die toediening van bogrond oor die oorblywende sand verbeter die toestand wat deur die skeiding van minerale veroorsaak is. Oorplasing van plante vanaf ongemynde na rehabilitasie gebiede is op proefbasis uitgevoer in 'n poging om die terugkeer van natuurlike plantegroei by die strookmyn te bespoedig. Vyf plaaslike inheemse plantspesies: Asparagus spp., Ruschia versicolor, Othonna cylindrical, Lampranthus suavissimus en Zygophyllum morgsana is in multi-spesie groepe geplant. Veranderlikes getoets tydens hierdie proef sluit in plantoorsprong, grond behandeling, en/of besproeiing, op die oorlewing en vestiging van plante. 'n Groter proporsie O. cylindrical as enige ander spesie het na 15 maande oorleef. Heel plante het beter oorleef as beskadigde plante. Asparagus spp., R. versicolor, L. suavissimus en Z. morgsana het beter oorleef op gebergde bogrond oor oorblywende sand as op oorblywende sand self. Besproeiing het nie 'n volgehoue uitwerking gehad op spesies of op herhaalde replisering nie. Beskadigde plantgroepe was groter as heelplant groepe toe hulle geplant is maar na 12 maande is opgemerk dat die heel-plante vinniger gegroei het. Die immergroen vetplante, 0. cylindrical, L. suavissimus en R. versicolor blyk die mees geskik vir grootskaalse oorplanting by Namakwa Sands. Herstel van biodiversiteit en veranderings in grondeienskappe 15 maande na proewe begin het, is vergelyk m.b.t. die toediening van bogrond, besproeiing, oorplanting en onbehandelde oorblywende sand. Besproeiing kan biodiversiteit en digtheid van saailinge verminder. Vyvtien maande na opvulling en die toediening van bogrond, het kalium, natrium en kalsium teruggekeer na vlakke in onversteurde grond. Magnesium vlakke was nog altyd laer as dié voordat mynaktiwiteite aangevang is. Terugplasing van sand en toediening van bogrond mag die vestiging en rehabilitasie van plante bespoedig. Weerstand vermeerder met tyd wat 'n verlaaging in vry soute en soutagtigheid in die grond wat gebruik is vir rehabilitasie aantoon. Fosfor het nie teruggekeer tot vlakke van voorheen nie en vlakke van koolstofhet na 15 maande verlaag gebly, en kan die potential tot rehabilitasie belemmer. Elke rehabilitasie tegniek wat die myn gebruik bring kostes sowel as voordele mee. Om restorasie pogings te laat slaag moet insigte vanaf ekologie en ekonomie saam ingespan word. 'n Oorsig van waardasie sisteme toon dat Afslag Kontant Vloei Tegnieke geskik is vir die evaluasie van rehabilitasie programme.

Thesis (MSc (Botany and Zoology)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Parts of the West Coast Strandveld and adjacent Succulent Karoo on the arid coast of Namakwaland in the Western Cape of South Africa are subject to surface mining. An understanding of mycorrhizal association of plants in the natural vegetation of this area could contribute to the improvement of post-mining re-vegetation of the area. This study investigated mycorrhizal association of plants in the West Coast Strandveld, and compared mycorrhizal infection rates of soils taken from natural vegetation to soils from post-mined rehabilitated vegetations. The study was divided into two components. In the first component a pot experiment was conducted in the greenhouse to assess vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) infectivity of post-mined rehabilitated areas of Brand se Baai in Namakwa Sands mining areas. Rehabilitated areas used in this study included sites that has been strip mined for heavy minerals and then progressively backfilled with sub-soil sand remaining after mineral extraction (tailings), topsoil and translocated plants in an effort to restore the structure and functional aspects of the mined site to its original (pre-mining) ecosystem. Rehabilitated sites 1 assessed in this study included sites backfilled with: tailings + translocated plants (TP); tailing + topsoil + translocated plants (TSP) and tailings + topsoil only (TS). Natural sites (N) were also assessed to serve as reference points. AM infection was evaluated as percent root colonization on wheat planted as bioassay on sterilised sand and inoculum from rehabilitated sites in the ratio of 3:1 respectively. Results of this study component showed that mycorrhiza infectivity of rehabilitated soils was high on TSP and TS because mining disturbance has been remedied by topsoil with or without translocated plant replacement. The structural and chemical components of topsoil used as rehabilitation material favoured re-establishment of microbial activities. Infectivity was however low on soils rehabilitated with tailings and translocated plants (TP) because this treatment lacked topsoil which is a major source of infective mycorrhizal propagules. Infectivity was also low in soils from undisturbed sites (N) probably high phosphorus concentration or presence of perennial vegetation led to low mycorrhiza infection. Results showed that there was no significant effect of mycorrhiza on plant growth rate, nutrient uptake or carbon cost of mycorrhizal plants when related to non-mycorrhizal plants, instead the biomass production and nutrient contents of plants were determined by chemical properties of treatment soils. The second component of the study investigated presence of mycorrhiza on randomly selected common indigenous species of Aizoaceae, Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Mesembryanthemaceae, Restionaceae, families growing on unmined areas of the study site. Total mycorrhiza infection was recorded on 85% of the assessed species with percent infection level ranging from 8% in Atriplex lindleyi and Drosanthemum hispidum to 98% in Salvia lanceolata. Functional mycorrhizal association with arbuscule structures were however only observed on 15% of all species assessed. Low arbuscules infection observed in indigenous species assessed in this study could be associated with the timing of mycorrhiza infection assessment and root competition in the soil. There was no infection observed on four species belonging to Chenopodiaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Sterculiaceae, and Asteraceae families, which represented 15% of all species assessed. Most species belonging to Chenopodiaceae and Zygophyllaceae have been reported as non-mycorrhizal in other studies, absence of mycorrhiza on the remaining three families species observed in this study require further confirmation.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Public Administration / Master / Master of Public Administration

published_or_final_version / abstract / Earth Sciences / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Architecture / Master / Master of Landscape Architecture

Research was conducted at Cyprus Pima Mine, an open pit copper mine located southwest of Tucson, Arizona, in 1980 and 1981 to study the establishment of annual and perennial grasses on the slopes of copper mine tailing ponds. In 1980, the north and south slope exposures were hydroseeded with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Plots were capped with topsoil prior to planting or left uncapped, and mulched with wheat straw after planting or left unmulched. Desert soil was classified as Palos Verdes-Sonoita Complex and Detrital-Sonoita Complex. Barley provided a quick, temporary cover and served as a mulch for later plantings. The number of seedlings established was the same for both exposures. Barley grew taller on the north slope possibly due to cooler temperatures. Barley growth was more vigorous on mulched areas. In 1981, the same north and south slopes were hydroseeded with Lehmann lovegrass (Eragrostis lehmanniana Nees.), buffel grass (Pennisetum cilare (L.) Link), blue panicgrass (Panicum antidotale Retz.) and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.). Prior to planting perennials, barley residue was incorporated into the slopes using a spike-tooth chain drag and a sheepfoot roller, or was left unincorporated. Incorporation of barley residue aided in its breakdown and helped prepare a good seedbed. The spike-tooth chain drag produced better growth than the sheepfoot roller, possibly due to excessive soil compaction with the sheepfoot roller. Capping tailing slopes with desert soil produced the most significant improvements in barley and perennial grass growth. Soil analyses of pure tailing and capped tailing revealed both were low in nitrogen and phosphorus. All plots were amended with these nutrients. Organic matter, although low for both samples, was higher in the capped tailing sample. Organic matter improves soil structure and provides nutrients and its increased presence may have been the main reason for improved growth on capped slopes.

In South Africa thousands of unemployed people earn a living by recovering recyclable materials from the municipal stream, garbage bins and garbage dumps. In so doing their activities are also beneficial to the environment because raw materials and energy are saved and pollution is reduced. However, waste reclamation in South Africa seems not to be adequately regulated, supported nor formally recognised by authorities. This study aims to investigate the extent to which South African Environmental law enables and regulates waste reclamation, whether directly and/or indirectly, with a view to improving the regulatory policy and legislative framework pertaining to waste reclamation. In this regard the study considers key policy and legislation pertaining to waste management in South Africa. To this end the Minimum Requirementsfor Waste Disposal by Landfill as published by the then Department of Water Affairs and Forestry serve as a guideline for the formalisation and control of waste reclamation at landfills. However, there is a need to formulate regulations under NEM: WA to regulate waste reclamation inside and even outside landfills. Moreover, the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs also needs to formulate standard model waste reclamation by-laws which would be adapted by municipalities to suit local circumstances. The long term view of government is to phase out waste reclamation at landfills in favour of waste separation at source. In order to realise this objective it is important for government, especially at local level, to integrate waste reclaimers in the formal waste management programmes by virtue of their experience in recovery of recyclables from the waste stream, and these programmesmust be included in municipal IWMPs and IDPs for implementation. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014