The forest industry is the most important economic activity in the Province of British Columbia, with half the families in the province depending directly or indirectly on the industry's $400 million annual payroll. Predictions of $1 billion worth of new capital investment materializing within the next five years provide a firm indication that the industry will retain this position of economic importance throughout the forseeable future. The growth of the forest industry has had a profound effect upon the settlement pattern of British Columbia, characterized principally by an extreme concentration of productive facilities, and hence of population, in the south-west of the province, and a thin diffusion of employment and population throughout the remainder. In this large hinterland the population is scattered throughout a myriad of camps, company towns and isolated settlements which are able to provide for their residents a minimum level of goods and services and a narrow range of opportunities for personal development and self-realization. Thus, for many thousands of workers and their families, employment in the forest industry involves denial of the opportunity to participate fully in the prosperous and variegated way of life which the industry has so materially assisted to create within the province. The Provincial Government has, to some extent, indicated an awareness of this condition, for the two declared objectives of its forest policies are the assurance of a perpetual yield of timber, and the establishment of prosperous permanent communities. Policies to ensure the fulfillment of the first objective have been thoroughly prepared, and conscientiously and competently applied. Policies to ensure the fulfillment of the second objective, on the other hand, are still lacking. The anticipated wave of new investment in the industry will produce significant changes in provincial settlement patterns, in the form of several new towns in hitherto undeveloped areas and of a re-structuring of communities in already established areas. If controlled by firm government policy, these changes could be directed toward the creation of a settlement pattern which would make available to the citizens of the province the highest level of goods, services and urban amenities which the province is capable of providing. In order to achieve this objective the developmental activities of the forest industry would have to be coordinated with those of all other agencies, both public and private, which are engendering urbanization within the province. Such coordination could only be achieved by the creation of a framework for developmental planning which would be province wide in scope, comprehensive enough to embrace all developmental action, and capable of accounting for regional variations. By establishing a Provincial Development Department at Cabinet level, with the portfolio being held by the Provincial Premier, a means would be provided for effectively initiating and controlling development on a comprehensive province wide basis. By establishing regional branch offices of the Provincial Development Department a means would be provided for the achievement of regional accountability. It would, be the responsibility of the Regional Development Offices to prepare regional development plans for the areas under their jurisdiction. Coordination of activity at the regional level would be assured through the establishment of a Regional Inter-departmental Committee consisting of the regional representatives of all government departments functioning within the region. By bringing the regional representative of the British Columbia Forest Service into the Regional Inter-departmental Committee, and by making all forestry development subject to the Regional Development Plans, developments within, the forest industry could be directed and controlled so as to make the maximum possible contribution to the realization of an optimum settlement pattern within each region. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The phenomenon of urban fringe service centres and their relationship to patterns of existing and future metropolitan land uses constitutes the basic material of this thesis. It is considered that existing communities on the periphery of the central city grew because of the specific functions they performed. Whether or not these functions have diminished over time, these communities should be utilized in allocating future metropolitan land use patterns because of the investment in human and material resources represented within them, from both the public and the private sector. In this regard it is hypothesized that: In a metropolitan region where expansion from the core is still taking place, predominantly on a horizontal plane, older urban service centres on the metropolitan fringe demand consideration as foci for new urban growth, provided their suitability in terms of location vis-a-vis the core area, and general socio-physical environment can be demonstrated. An attempt is made to assess fringe communities in the light of regional considerations. It is recognized that these communities owe their original existence to specific factors, such as, an agricultural service centre to an agricultural hinterland, or a resort centre to a recreational resource, and that such communities are inextricably related to the core city of a metropolitan region. The community has evolved to satisfy the range of human needs and wants and has grown as a result of the process of industrialization with its attendant division of labour. The process of industrialization has manifested itself in an ambivalent manner. First, increased mechanization has eliminated much of the demand for farm labour but at the same time increased the demand for labour in factories. That this originally occurred in a time when mechanized transport was unavailable contributed to the growth of cities. The form of the city or the urban region has evolved from a dense arrangement of residential, commercial, and industrial functions to a sprawling decentralization of these same functions. Two major factors have contributed to this phenomenon. First, mechanized transportation, particularly in the form of the private automobile and second, the apparent universal goal of low density living, manifested by the single family house. The central city has "burst its container" and the periphery is becoming suburbanized at an alarming rate. Commensurate with this has been an apparent demise of the older urban service centres located on the periphery. There would appear to be a good opportunity to retain these communities and utilize them as the "centre" for expanded communities. Such utilization, if fringe communities were suitably located with respect to the metropolitan core, would theoretically result in a rational pattern of metropolitan land use. An investigation of the above possibility utilizes the Lower Mainland Region of British Columbia as a case study. The established communities of Cloverdale and White Rock are examined in detail so as to ascertain their viability from a socio-physical viewpoint and to assess their validity for retention and expansion as new metropolitan towns. The thesis is based on the regional development concept of the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board which recommends the creation of a pattern of separate communities with an ultimate population of 100,000 persons each, to accommodate metropolitan population expansion in the Vancouver area. After analyzing physical and social criteria for Cloverdale and White Rock it is concluded that the viability per se of these communities is only a secondary asset if their location with respect to the metropolitan core is adequate. Rather it becomes the specific site that is deemed desirable as the locale for new communities. If their commercial cores are viable and in the case study communities it is felt that they are, then Cloverdale and White Rock could satisfactorily be utilized as the nucleus of new town centres. This assumes that potential problems regarding urban renewal and rehabilitation are not too great, although specific judgment of such is beyond the scope of this thesis. The conclusions are predicated on an improved system of local administration, that is, a regionally oriented system. New planning legislation in British Columbia and a conceptual regional administrative framework is assessed with a view to implementing regional land use proposals. Such a system is essential if metropolitan decentralization, virtually a necessity, is to proceed on a rational and efficient scale. Thus, it is felt the hypothesis has been adequately demonstrated. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This thesis examines various approaches to public participation within rural planning. It deals with the roles rural residents, in unincorporated areas of British Columbia, can play in local planning. The thesis argues that effective planning in such areas only occurs if a rural planning approach, which considers distinctive rural characteristics, is applied to the planning process. Such planning generally requires the active involvement of rural people. To accomplish this objective a model is constructed of how rural residents participate in planning. Its theoretical framework is developed from a review of the available literature on rural planning and public participation. The model is then used to examine a specific area--Texada Island--which was selected because of its recent experiences with planning. The model identifies four main approaches to rural planning: planning 'of a rural community; planning 'for' a rural community; planning 'with' a rural community; and planning 'by' a rural community. The thesis argues that all of these approaches can meet the criteria that define rural planning, but they differ significantly on the objectives for the planning process, and the roles the local residents perform. The model also contains four categories of public participation: public information; data collection; citizenship training; and involvement in decision making. This thesis defines public participation as the means whereby the general public interact with decision makers, beyond elections, to ensure public decisions reflect their objectives. Within the context of this definition the four categories are seen as being the main avenues that rural people have for participation in planning. When the types of participation were applied to the various rural planning approaches a number of observations about the involvement of rural people in planning became apparent. These characteristics were reinforced when the Texada Islanders' experiences with planning were examined. The model and the Texada example both demonstrated that even within the constraints inherent in the various types of planning there were opportunities to enhance the level of public involvement. The author takes the position that these possible improvements are significant to the planning process since there is a positive linear correlation between increased public participation and the effectiveness of the planning process. The relationship between public involvement and planning is demonstrated through the analysis of rural planning approaches. Planning 'of' a rural, community may produce some short term results but it is incapable of providing any long term direction because the planning process is too divorced from the aspiration of the local residents who have considerable ability to frustrate external objectives even when they have little ability to take the initiative. Planning 'for' a rural community generally fails because the issues that the planning exercise is attempting to deal with are examined from the perceptions of 'outsiders'. Planning 'with' a rural community is limited because the planning process is dominated by the 'experts' who also see issues through a different set of perceptions. Planning 'by' the rural community approach is the approach that the thesis claims can succeed when the others fail. Its success is related to its correlation to rural values; its emphasis on local resources, which expands the usually limited resources available for any rural planning; and the fact that it deals with planning as part of a larger process of rural development. Rural development avoids the frequent segregation of planning and implementation and permits the planning to become an ongoing process which allows for adjustment and elaboration as required. Advocating a need for planning 'by' rural communities is not done with any naive assumptions about its success being assured. This approach can produce the most enduring results, but it also exacts the highest costs in terms of effort and its existence is dependent on a continuing commitment by the rural residents who are in control of the planning process. But this commitment is a requirement for rural development where change is achieved by the active participation of affected people. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The public's demands for increased involvement in resource management planning and decision making emphasize the need to understand public participation and the practical aspects of its application. This thesis sets out to analyse the process of public participation in one case study, focusing in on those who participated directly in the public participation program. The effectiveness of this application is examined and compared to the general experience of public participation in Canada. Special emphasis is placed on discovering whether or not effective public participation produces support for resource management strategies. The study takes place within the context of the Kalamalka Lake Public Participation Program developed by the Ministry of Environment and Parks, Province of British Columbia. This research has pointed out the necessity for: knowing what the public feels about management plans, communicating to the public an agency's objectives, pointing out how an agency's management plans are developed to achieve those objectives, opening the process for the public to participate in finalizing management plans, and communicating detailed, final plans to the public within a reasonable timeframe. The purpose of this research is to see how selected components of public participation affect the development of public support for park management strategies. Public participation is a part of the theory of participatory democracy. It can be included in the present system of representative democracy, and result in a stronger, more stable system of government than exists today. The Bargaining Process Model of public participation is preferred to the Upward Forming Consensus Model because it provides the public with access to the administrators on decisions which directly affect the public. Access is provided through pressure groups which are authorized to participate in the decision making process. Connor's New Ladder, modified to include the public at the joint planning team level, is the most complete and integrated set of public participation methodologies available. The public needs to be brought into the initial stages of the planning process as a partner equal to 'experts'. Ongoing, independent evaluation of public participation programing is necessary for an effective process of public participation to develop. The challenge is to determine which issues require inputs from the public, what segments of the public should be consulted, and how the necessary inputs can be obtained most effectively It is this challenge which forms the research base for this paper and which is directly reflected in these three components of the broad objective (discussed in Chapter I); park issues, social-economic characteristics of the local public, and communication methods. The fourth component is 'the attitudes of the public and park personnel towards each other'. In this component, support of park management strategies is considered a part of the attitudes and perceptions of the public and the agency towards each other. Perceptions and attitudes are investigated as indicators of a successful public participation program and of public support for management strategies. Public participation in Canada at the Federal and Provincial Parks level is a part of the Upward Forming Consensus Model of Public Participation. The public was informed and consulted, but not allowed to advise or consent. In the case of Parks Canada's Four Mountain Parks Planning Process, the importance of distributing clear information to the public and identifying where the public input influenced the final decisions was emphasized. Kalamalka Lake Provincial Park is located on the North East shore of Kalamalka Lake and four kilometers South of the City of Vernon in the province of British Columbia. Steep hills covered by grass and rock outcroppings with some pine forests interspersed with a large network of lakes characterize the area. The name Kalamalka is a Polynesian word thought to mean lake of many colors. Many of the original settlers were British and they have had a strong influence on the social and cultural development of this area. When it was learnt that a major resort and residential development was planned for the land which is now Kalamalka Park, an intense public outcry led by the North Okanagan Naturalist Club resulted in the land being purchased from Coldstream Ranch for a provincial park in August of 1975. The preparation of a master plan for Kalamalka Lake Provincial Park was to be guided by the issues, concerns and proposals received through an open planning process. Public meetings were organized and public comments received. The Parks Branch formulated four alternative plans (concept 1 - 4) and the public voiced their choice through concerns sheets, letters, briefs and petitions. Concept one or two was preferred by the majority (78%) of the public. After a five year delay an advisory committee was set up (1983) to approve a plan for park development. The next year the Advisory Committee presented their report and park development began. The park was opened two years later (1986). Respondents were identified and interviewed about the sequence of events surrounding the Kalamalka Lake Public Participation Program. The purpose of using focused interviews in this research is to evaluate what did or did not work and why. This technique is used to explain behavior and is a valuable indicator of what might occur in similar situations. There were 9 personal interviews and 22 telephone interviews for a total of 31. This research has pointed out the necessity for: - knowing what the public feels about management plans - communicating to the public an agency's objectives - explaining how an agency's management plans are developed to achieve those objectives - opening the process for the public to participate in finalizing management plans - communicating detailed, final plans to the public within a reasonable timeframe The benefits of an effective public participation program are: - less controversy - better overall management plans - active public support / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Residential-agricultural land use conflict in the rural-urban fringe of metropolitan areas is commonly mentioned as a planning problem. The initial intent of this research was to correlate types of conflict and local planning responses in order to identify effective approaches to the management of such problems. The anticipated method would have combined theory which addresses the cause and characteristics of residential-agricultural conflict along with data from Vancouver suburbs having substantial agricultural activity and planning departments respected for their professional qualities. However, the investigation showed that the academic literature and the accessible data would not support such research. On the other hand, consultations with local planners and a review of available documentation in the municipalities of Richmond, Delta and Surrey, British Columbia, showed that residential-agricultural land use conflict is treated as a planning problem and is a source of complaints to municipal officials. Three kinds of conclusions resulted from this research. The first and second are appropriate to the underdeveloped state of the academic literature, while the first and third relate to professional practice in the absence of applicable scientific knowledge. The first is a description of the characteristics which are perceived as constituting a planning problem and a governmental response. Secondly, there are recommendations for development of data to support future research. Municipal governments in the three communities have no comprehensive monitoring system or set of cross-referenced records of complaints associated with land use conflicts. Instead, conflicts are received, identified and acted on by a variety of departments in the local government. From the descriptive material a tentative typology is offered to guide data collection and classification. Thirdly, there are suggestions which may be useful to planners who must rely on non-systematic methods to identify conflict situations appropriate for a planning response and to develop that response. The summaries of problems and responses reported are used to develop a tentative critique of present conceptualizations of appropriate planning measures. It is observed that planners have used only a few of the possible responses to rural-urban conflict. In particular, it is clear that for a wide range of conflict types there has been a reliance on land buffers to separate potentially conflicting activities. Alternative and supplementary approaches which may improve the management of typical conflict situations are suggested. These approaches focus on preventing the development of conflict through increasing the mutual understanding of the conflicting parties' points-of-view. Examples include public involvement in problem identification and resolution, as well as programs to facilitate communication between the government, farmers and non-farm residents. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Many regions in the US and Canada have experienced significant growth and development in recent decades. Much of this has taken the form of unrelieved urban and suburban sprawl that has used enormous amounts of land, compromised environmentally sensitive areas, provided few lasting cultural and social benefits, and delivered questionable long-term economic benefits. In response, several senior and regional governments have undertaken growth managementprograms. The general objective of growth management is to control and direct growth and development to avoid, reduce and mitigate negative impacts arising from large scale growth and development in urban areas, and promote the creation of more attractive, efficient and sustainable cities and regions. The thesis argues that the stronger the degree of senior government control - Federal, Provincial or State - over decisions by regional governments the more likely a comprehensive growth management program exists that: includes clearly defined goals; possesses institutional mechanisms to institute growth management; and, utilizes the powers of senior government to help direct and manage growth. The thesis pursues the argument through a literature review and a comparative analysis of selected growth management programs. Analysis of selected cases in British Columbia finds that the Provincial government's growth management legislation and program have been applied in its large, highly urbanized and/or rapidly growing regional districts. However, it is found that the legislation has limited or no applicability to regions experiencing slow growth or decline. A new Provincial planning model, flexible enough to address the needs of all regional districts in British Columbia, is recommended. Based on the concept of a growth and development continuum, an incremental and graduated planning model would give them the opportunity to choose appropriate planning tools, thereby providing the large, highly urbanized and/or rapidly growing regional districts and their local governments with the tools they need to manage growth and change, and slow growing regions and those in decline with the regulatory tools, financial and political support needed to encourage new growth and development. The thesis findings provide guidance to senior and regional governments in British Columbia, Canada and the US to enable them to improve their respective growth management legislation and programs. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In The Livable Region 1976/1986, the Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) proposes the creation of a series of regional town centres (RTCs) --decentralized suburban clusters of activities historically found in the city centre. However, because land use control is a Municipal responsibility, the realization of RTCs is dependent upon local acceptance. Therefore the research problem is to discover discrepancies in the RTC notion as seem from a local perspective and to suggest how these might be reconciled. The RTC designated for the Municipality of Burnaby (locally called the 'Metrotown') is used as a case study. Discrepancies in the RTC idea are a function of diverging regional and local opinions that preclude their cooperation on RTC development. Diverging opinions can occur at the levels of broad planning policy, RTC modelling and specific RTC site design. A comparative analysis of regional and local positions is undertaken at these levels. However, RTC cooperation does not require concurrence between the two authorities on all policy matters. Disagreements take shape around specific issues so a 'probe design'--a hypothetical design solution—of the Metrotown site is used to isolate issues. Because design is a local matter, the design probe is done from the local viewpoint and a regional response to the various design aspects is predicted towards the formation of issues. To facilitate design and issue prediction, the local model for the Metrotown is surveyed in consultation with Burnaby planners. The regional model as published is also summarized. Issues are then proposed to be reconciled either through technical resolutions that become apparent in the process of probe design or by revisions of broader policy along lines suggested in the comparative analysis. The research predicted issues in the following areas: a. nature of movement--form of streets, transit line/stations and the arrangement of land uses relative to these; b. inclusion of residential neighbourhoods as a dominating RTC activity; c. the development approach--configuration and timing of phasing, use of a Development Corporation and treatment of existing site features; and, d. building forms, quality and costs. The arrangements of transit stations and the transit line as well as the provision of support modes are provided with technical reconciliations. The remaining issues are proposed to be reconciled by the following recommendations: a. that the GVRD continue its efforts to initiate transit, but also endorse the Municipal proposition of balanced modes for movement within and into the Burnaby- RTC; - b. that the GVRD endorse Burnaby's policy position that the Metrotown be a comprehensive 'settlement' and adjust its conception of the Burnaby RTC accordingly; c. that Burnaby adopt the GVRD's initiative approach for Metrotown implementation including ideas of a Development Corporation and timed phasing but that the GVRD adopt a position to respect Municipal control devices; and d. that Burnaby respect GVRD policy that the Burnaby RTC be one among several equally evolving RTCs and moderate development requirements to create a Metrotown that can independently attract activity. Broader differences about handling growth and integrating the RTC with the real site situation are found to exist but to have little impact on RTC design agreements. Thus, the research concludes that differences exist in RTC and Metrotown notions that could stifle regional/local cooperation on RTC development. It is found, however, that these discrepancies are amenable to reconciliation if the two authorities are prepared to accept technical compromises as well as revise their planning policies in the manner recommended. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Understanding how government's plan, make decisions and implement policy programmes is of vital concern to the planners who are expected to intervene in society's complex problems and formulate solutions that can be implement ed. A recent model examines political decision making processes and isolates four factors which influence decision outcomes: 1) the roles played by actors in the issue; 2) the nature of the decision making environment; 3) the characteristics of the issue; and 4) the type of planning and intervention strategies used. The model was used as a framework for examining a decision making episode in the District of Chilliwack, which centered around the issue of community growth in an area that had been circumscribed by the Agricultural Land Reserves. The model hypothesized that comprehensive, classical planning methods, which are goal-oriented and focus on long-term horizons, are likely to be rejected in decision making processes. This was confirmed in the Chilliwack case, along with the hypotheses that a proposal for change that is ideologically controversial, inflexible, and difficult to predict in its consequences, will likely be rejected. The fact that the Chilliwack plan was easy to programme and had a limited scope of costs and benefits could not overcome its drawbacks, therefore, these hypotheses were not upheld in the case study. The model's framework provided a useful means of examining and understanding why the particular outcome of the case study occurred. It clarified the inappropriatness of methods and means used by the Chilliwack decision makers and planners in attempting to achieve their goals. Consequently, the study points out that planners need new approaches, skills and knowledge in order to achieve socially acceptable and workable solutions to complex societal problems. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Planning is the ultimate expression of a community responding to growth and change, shaping its future through a collective set of values, goals and strategies. Over the past four decades planning policies and practices have largely focused on issues related to the growth of urban regions. Given the realms of change that will shape communities over the coming decades, these policies and practices need to reorient themselves away from aggregate notions of growth and towards the relevant agents of change. The goal of this research is to articulate a framework for the investigation of issues that will shape communities over the coming four decades; specifically how demographic change will impact on the future of community housing, land and financial resources. Although it presents one region as a case study (the Central Okanagan Regional District in British Columbia, Canada) the framework is intended to be used by any community or region to evaluate the extent of demographic change and its impact on issues related to community and regional planning. The first finding of the framework shows that over any strategic time horizon planning issues will be related to changes in a population's composition rather than aggregate notions of its growth. It is the patterns of lifecycle and lifestyle change that will shape issues ranging from land uses, housing markets and transportation demand to school enrolment, medical requirements or even funeral services. None of which can be accurately represented by the aggregate size of a region's population, as each are impacted by changes in its underlying composition. The second finding is that it is current residents, rather than new migrants to the region, that will direct changes in the age composition of a population. This leads to the assertion that we have a good approximation of the region's future population in those who are residents today: they will be slightly older, wiser and possibly a little wearier. Finally, this research also calls attention to a substantial lack of information. A lack of information concerning the fundamental processes of community change, and a lack of information regarding the economic, environmental and social costs associated with the location, density and timing of future development. Most importantly, current planning decisions are still largely predicated on aggregate notions of population growth, without sufficient information about the external costs and tradeoffs associated with these decisions. The future quality of life in any region will be directly determined by the degree to which both planning jurisdictions and the general public acknowledge and, more importantly, choose to respond to the challenges presented by change. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Complexity theory studies the workings of complex adaptive systems (CAS). A complex adaptive system can adapt and change in response to information it gathers from its environment. It responds to feedback by changing its actions, and develops new activities, learning capacity and ability to innovate. Complex adaptive systems depend on information flow through linked networks of individuals and groups, such as those present in cities or communities. Hornby Island, a small northern gulf island in British Columbia, Canada, possesses the characteristics of a complex adaptive system and is used to provide examples of how complexity theory can be applied and used by a community. Observations from Hornby Island and the use of SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) have provided insight to the applicability and usefulness of complexity theory in the theoretical and local action contexts of community development. Misunderstandings between the scientific and humanitarian backgrounds of complexity and community development theories represent weaknesses and pose some threats to the field of community development. However, complexity theory also possesses strengths that have the potential to provide community development practitioners and communities with opportunities, such as tools and ideas, to better adapt to change. The following opportunities for learning and action within communities are suggested and expanded upon in this thesis: human led creative adaptation; location of mal-adaptive schemata; education for adaptive schemata; reducing and changing mal-adaptive schemata; guidelines and generalizations; and intangibles and legitimization of actions. This thesis concludes that complexity theory is applicable and useful to community development because it strengthens other theories and concepts related to community development; helps frame what goes on in the community; and locates focuses for change. It also provides new tools and ideas for action, to communities and practitioners, to better deal with change and create resilient communities. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate